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THE ARCHITECTURE
OF ANCIENT GREECE

THE "HISTORICAL ARCHITECTURE
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_ ^ ^ PUBLISHED BY

BT.BATSFORD LT,? 94, High Holborn, London

PLATE I

THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS, FROM THE WEST

THE ARCHITECTURE
OF ANCIENT GREECE

AN ACCOUNT OF ITS HISTORIC
DEVELOPMENT

BEING THE FIRST PART OF

THE ARCHITECTURE
OP GREECE AND ROME

WILLIAM J. ANDERSON, a.r,lb.a.

Author of Architecture of the Renaissance in Italy”

AND

R. PHENE SPIERS, f.s.a., f.r.lb.a.

Author of “Architecture East and West’’

REVISED AND REWRITTEN BY

WILLIAM BELL DINSMOOR

Professor of Architecture in Columbia University, New York,
and in the American School of Classical Studies at Athens

LONDON

B, T. BATSFORD LTD., 94 HIGH HOLBORN

Made and printed %n Great lBr%ta%n by
Harrison, Jehring dh Co,, JLtd,, ILondon

PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION

The preparation of a revised edition of '‘The Architecture
of Greece and Rome,” by William J. Anderson and R. Phene
Spiers, had been considered before the outbreak of the European
War ; at that time the plan was to republish the book merely
with verbal emendations and corrections, leaving it as a whole
essentially unaltered But when the project was taken up again
after the long delay caused by the war, the outlook had changed ;
it seemed preferable to make the revision as thorough as might
be necessary in order to make the book more useful and attractive
to students, and to embody more of the latest results of excavation
and research. To that end the book was divided into its two com-
ponent parts, each half being entrusted to a speciahst in the field
concerned. My acceptance of the task of re-writing the Greek
portion, while I was still resident in Greece, was followed by my
unforeseen return to the United States, where other work awaited
me ; the ensuing delay in the completion of the book has permitted
me, however, to take account of the important discoveries of the
last six years and of observations made during my subsequent
visits to Greece.

Though the fmal decision was to revise the work so thoroughly
that it was practically a new book, nevertheless it was desirable
to retain, to as great an extent as was possible, the arrangement
and the language of the second edition of 1907. The method
of the revision, therefore, requires brief explanation.

The stress laid upon the idea of evolution by the original authors
precluded any other scheme of arrangement ; the evolutionary
scheme seems, furthermore, all the more desirable, because it is the
opposite or anal 3 d:ical viewpoint that underlies most of the recent
studies of Greek architecture For this reason the material has been
freely rearranged in order that it might be perfectly consistent
with the chronological framework ; the most obvious change is the
disintegration of the original chapter (VII) on secular architecture,
and the discussion of all the secular monuments in the diapters
dealing with the periods concerned where, in fact, a few works
such as the monument of Lysicrates and the Tower of the Winds
had already been described. By drawing a sharp distinction between
the fourth century and the H^enistic period, however, the original
number of chapters (seven) has been retained. Within each period,

PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION

moreover, I have attempted to restrict myself to the examples
selected by the ongmal authors and to refrain from introducing
new ideas or following out hnes of investigation other than those
indicated by Messrs Anderson and Spiers, lest I depart too radically
from their work* But I have, whenever possible, given the
most recent versions of the theories which they discussed and,
wherever their conclusions have not borne the test of later research,
I have exercised the power of suppressing them or relegating them
to footnotes. The one exception to this treatment has been the first
chapter, which, on account of the rapid advance in our knowledge
of the pre-classical epoch, is perforce almost totally new , and,
dealing with the vicissitudes of an entire civilisation, it has neces-
sarily become somewhat longer than any one of the chapters
allotted to a single phase of the classical epoch Some general
material has been separated from the original first chapter to form,
what it IS in fact, an introduction to the whole subject.

The number of illustrations has been increased by about seventy-
five, but as only fifty of the ongmal illustrations of the second
edition have been retained (and even these in part revised), the
number of new illustrations is actually one hundred and fifty-
two The chronological memoranda at the beginning have been
somewhat amphfied, and the chronological table of Greek temples
at the end of the book has been entirely recomposed, with changes
not only in the dates but also, m practically every case, in the
dimensions and proportions, the measurements being in all cases
taken either directly from the buildings themselves or from the
detailed monographs The bibliography has been brought up to date
and is here rearranged m accordance with the chapters of the book.

WILLIAM BELL DINSMOOR.

March, 1^27.

with regard to the details of the evolution of
t^r of the metiiods of design and constru^-

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

To the late William J Anderson, of Glasgow, is due the concep-
tion of this work. The course of lectures which, on the invitation
of the Governors of the School of Art in that city, he delivered
in 1893-94 on the Architecture of the Renaissance in Italy (published
in 1896), was followed in 1896-97 by a course on the History and
Development of Greek Architecture. To this subject he devoted
his studies for three years, repeating his course with various
revisions, and adding to it m 1897 three additional lectures on
Roman Architecture, which, with those on Greek, he intended to
publish as his second work Immediately following these Roman
lectures, he continued, in 1898, with a course which included the
various styles down to the present day, and in the winter of
1898-99 a further special course deahng with the Renaissance in
France

The preparation of these courses would seem to have interfered
with the studies he intended to devote to Roman Architecture m
order to bring them m line with the Greek There is no doubt
that he had attained a masterly grasp of the principles underlying
Greek work, more particularly those deahng with the Archaic and
culminatmg periods, the study of which would seem to have had
a special attraction for him. It was his intention to deal with
Roman work in the same way, and with that in view, and being
in indifferent health, he expressed the desire that I, who had been
in frequent communication with him respecting the various courses
he had dehvered, should undertake to read and see through the
press the chapters on Greek Architecture (for which, as well as for
the Roman, numerous illustrations had already been prepared),
so as to give him more time to devote to those on Roman Archi-
tecture. He died, however, before this intention was realised, and
the whole work was then placed in my hands by Mr Batsford
with the entire’ concurrence of Mr Anderson's widow.

Vlll

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

In parts of the work there are some theories put forward which
have not yet obtained universal acceptance ; but one of the
objects has been to stimulate the student's interest in the subject,
with the hope that, by independent research, he may ascertain
for himself, either among the treasures of the British and other
museums, or in the numerous publications cited in the Bibliography,
how far those theories can be substantiated

R. PtIENK SPIERS.

London,
September, 1902.

NOTE OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Many of the subjects included among the lUustiations are
from various foreign sources, and the author must acknowledge
his debt to a number of Works and Transactions of Learned
Societies in which these appear Thanks are due to the Authori-
ties of the British Museum for permission to include the subjects
illustrated on Plate XIII (bottom two), Plate XXVII, Plate
XLIX (centre) and Plate LI (top) He must also thank Mr.
A. E Henderson, F S A , and the Royal Institute of British
Architects for permission to reproduce the reconstruction of the
Later Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, appearing on Plate L,
in the galleries of the Institute A large number of reproductions
have been made from original drawings and reconstructions in
which the name of the author appears on the title to the illus-
tration, and grateful acknowledgment must be made for the use
of these subjects, which must be considered indispensable to a
general survey of Greek Architecture

CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA

c. 8000 B.c.
C.3000 „
C.2000 „
c, 1460 „
1184 „
1104

c. 860 „
776 „
734 „
628

682 „
669 „
661 „
660 „
548 „
646 „
627 „
610

499 „
494 „
490 „
486
480 „

479 „

478 „
461 „
448 „
447
438 „
437 „

Begiimmg of the Neolithic Age in Crete.

Beginning of the Bronze Age in Crete.

Minyan invasion of Greece.

Achaean invasion of Greece.

Fall of Troy.

Donan invasion of Greece.

Age of Homer.

First Ol5nnpiad, the earliest recorded date.
Foundation of Corcyra and Syracuse by Connth.
Foundation of Sehnus.

Foundation of Acragas.

Accession of Aahmes (Amasis) II of Egypt.
Accession of Pisistratus of Athens
Accession of Croesus of Lydia.

Burning of the temple of Apollo at Delphi.

Conquest of Lydia by Cyrus of Persia.

Death of Pisistratus,

Fall of the tyranny at Athens.

Beginning of the loman Revolt
Miletus taken by Darius of Persia.

First Persian invasion of Greece ; battle of Marathon.
Accession of Gelon at Syracuse
Second Persian invasion of Greece ; destruction of
Athens

Fust Carthaginian invasion of Sicily; battle of
Himera.

Eiqiulsion of the Persians from Greece, battle of
Plataea.

Foundation of the Delian Confederacy under Athens.
Assumption of leaderdiip at Athens by Pericles.
Peace signed between Athens and Persia.

Beginning of the Parthenon at Athens.

Dedication of the Athena Parthenos by Phidias.
Beginning of the Propylaea at Athens
Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War.

CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA

429 B.c. Death of Pericles

423 „ Burning of the temple of Hera near Argos.

413 „ Defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse.

409 „ Second Carthaginian invasion of Sicily , destruction
of Sehnus,

404 „ Fall of Athens.

394 „ Bummg of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea
373 „ Destruction of the temple of Apollo at Delphi by
earthquake.

356 „ Burmng of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus.

338 „ Conquest of Greece by Phihp of Macedon ; battle
of Chaeronea.

334 „ Invasion of Persia by Alexander
331 „ Foundation of Alexandria in Egypt.

323 „ Death of Alexander the Great
301 „ Foundation of Antioch by Seleucus.

174 „ Beginning of the temples of Zeus at Athens and
Lebadea by Antiochus.

146 „ Destruction of Corinth by the Romans
86 „ Capture of Athens by Sulla
46 „ Refoundation of Corinth by Julius Caesar
31 „ Battle of Actiuni

27 „ Establishment of the Roman Empire under Augustus.
131 A.D Emperor Hadnan at Athens ; dedication of the
Olympieum

c. 170 „ Pausanias writes his description of Greece.

CONTENTS

CHAP

Preface to the Present Edition

Preface to the First Edition

{By R. PhenS Spiers)

Note of Acknowledgment • .
Chronological Memoranda . .
Introduction

PAGE

vii

viii

I. The Aegean Age

II The Origins of Greek Architecture

Ill The Rise of the Doric Style

IV. The Rise of the Ionic Style

V. The Culmination in Attica and the Peloponnesus

VI. The Beginning of the Decadence

VII. The Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman Phases

108

137

160

Maps of Greece, Asia Minor and Italy ...
Chronological List of Greek Temples —

Bibliography

Glossary . . .

Alphabetical List of Illustrations
Index to Text and Illustrations

... 187

... 193
... 201
... 213
... 226
... 227

THE ARCHITECTURE
OF ANCIENT GREECE

INTRODUCTION

That works of architecture as things of man's creatmg are
inferior in interest, in excellence of design, and m perfection of
workmanship, to the humblest of Nature's works outside humanity,
has often been the burden of the moralising of theologian, naturalist,
and astronomer. But in this reflection hes a fallacy which is fuUy
exposed to those who can discern in the successive intellectual
works of man the path of the human spirit, and who regard them
as manifestations of Nature, of which he forms a part. Mysterious
and impressive the instinct which causes the bird, the beaver, the
insect engineer, to build for their material needs ; astonishing the
variety and intricacy of the results within the limits of the type
But the work of man is infinitely more complex m its nature, more
profound in its meaning A spintual element marks it off from
the work of animals . it is here that architecture begins Building,
whose end and aim is the fulfilment of material wants, remains
building, and, whatever be the nature of the material want, differs
in no essential from the work of the lower animals , but if to this
be added an element of aspiration involving the exercise of a
higher kind of design, there is the distinction that makes the
difference. The blackbird m early sprmg builds a nest of a
different type from that which the swallow will build later ; and
in a way analogous the yellow man built differently from the white
man who succeeded him , and in certain respects the artistic
instincts of the Celt may be distinguishable from those of the
Teuton. But above and beyond this racial expression there is
embodied in the architectural work of man a spiritual stnvmg

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

after the unattainable, corresponding to the progress of this never-
resting civilisation, every aspect of which — every habit, belief,
and aspiration — it has power to reflect and symbolise. Works
of architecture in themselves are material, perishable, incomplete ,
but a style of architecture is one of the higher manifestations of
Nature, reaching in through the human spirit. That architecture
can fail m mterest, as compared with the works of Nature which
he outside humanity, is not for lack of the elements of interest,
but because of the greater complexity which enters into its nature,
and which makes it more difficult to grasp its full significance

But should we try to grasp as a whole one great period of archi-
tecture, one great style of art, like that of Greece, our study is
simplified in finding that it presents all the features of a natural
growth. Art is a flower, and, like the flower of the field, is sown
m obscurity, nounshed by the decay of pre-existing organisms,
rooted in the mire of an imperfect civilisation, and, though refined
and perfected by high culture, buds and blooms at its own time.
It IS in a large measure what the soil and the atmosphere and the
sunshine make it ; it repays the care and toil that human hands
bestow upon it ; yet its form and its colour are its own. And so
we may not know aU the causes which produce the phenomenon,
nor do we now desire to look too closely mto them ; but we may at
least watch it grow, enjoy its full beauty, and foUow it in its wither-
ing, our study remaining one of purely artistic interest ; for, like
the plant, it is beautiful not only when in full flower, but at every
stage of progress, and even m decline.

Like other simpler natural manifestations, Greek architecture,
while the fruit of all the civilisations which preceded the great
penod of Greek culture, did not hve for itself alone ; for it has sown
the seed of European architecture, and has deteimined the future
form and growth of all subsequent European art Behind and
beyond the fountain-head which it makes for Western art, the
tributary arts of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Phoenicia shnnV into
their narrower channels, their sources lost in obscurity. From it
flows the main stream of European culture, the arts of Rome
and the Middle Ages, the rejuvenescence of Roman tradition
in the fifteenth century, not to say the prevaihng architecture
of the cities m which we dwell. The influence of the past upon the
present is p^t of the nature of thmgs in which we live and move ,
but rarely, if ever, m the world's history have past forms and

INTRODUCTION

principles and ideals exercised so potent an influence on subsequent
art as those of the vigorous, rarely dowered race which settled,
perhaps more than two thousand years before Christ, on the coasts
and islands of the Eastern Mediterranean.

We do not seem to be wrong in attributing this paramount
and matchless influence chiefly on the one hand to the reasonable-
ness, the perfection of form, and the high spintuality of their
art , and on the other to the historic relation with Rome, which,
taught by the vanquished, transmitted what it had assimilated
to the subjugated ruder nations of the rismg West. Whether
epic or temple, lyric or bronze, it is by such indwelling qualities
that these matchless products of human endeavour survived as
a standard by which the world's subsequent efforts are measured
and tested.

The higher fhghts of hterature and architecture present an
almost perfect parallel Both have more of art than science, and
show little progress within themselves all down the ages, while they
clearly reflect the progress of the soul of man It may be that the
greatness of the Greeks is not demonstrated most of all in their
architecture , but it by their architecture, using the word in its
widest sense, that we may now most readily comprehend their
civilisation in all its bearings An eminent student of Greek language
and hterature has said that he would exchange the work of one of
the greatest of Greek writers for one peep into the workshop where
Phidias and Ictmus perfected their marvellous designs We can
take leave to doubt if the sight of the workshop would reveal
much that would be worth the knowing, but the perfected work
which that workshop turned out, and which yet remains, is it not
in itself a document, for those who have eyes to read it, more
precious by far than any single work of Greek hterature To the
mythologist, sculptor, architect, philologist, and historian it has
opened separate fields of investigation, and from each quarter
a beam of hght has been shed on the whole subject of Greek civilisa-
tion. What IS true of the Parthenon in this connection, for instance,
IS much more true of the whole architectural development from the
time of Agamemnon to that of Alexander, as illustrated by the
monuments, and by all that is comprehended in them — ^inscriptions,
sculpture, and religious, civic, or domestic furniture. In this sense
architecture might be called the sheet-anchor of history, which
without the everlasting testimony of the monuments would certamlv

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

become fluid and unstable. For example, the higher critics of
literature in the generation now past gave Homer between them
a time-period of about seven hundred years , they mostly believed
his accredited work a mass of interpolations and accretions by
different authors of varying dates , they had almost succeeded
m casting doubt on his very existence, and discredit on the tale he
told. But architectural archgeology, m maintaining the histone
truth of the Homeric epics, has in great measure vindicated itself
as the teacher of the past

But let us not make the mistake of depreciating in return the
hterary side of the study We need them both, for how much
more is open to the student who examines the architectural works
with full mythological knowledge, or from the point of view of
the trained philologist or historian I No exposition of the subject
will appear satisfactory to one whose education has fitted him
to take up a standpoint m one or other of these directions ;
mevitably the subject must appear as if presented in false
perspective, or as if badly hghted, or carelessly drawn. Yet, even
at the risk of such distortion, the scope of this sketch must be
limited to that which is comprehended m the architect's point of
view, though this need not mean the refusal of all histone narration,
the rejection of all mythological explanation, nor the divorce of
sculpture from its architectural setting. It involves rather the
subservience of our programme to an architect's needs and ideals ;
hut so rooted is the architectural purpose in the motives of the
soaal and religious hfe of the HelLenes that it is believed that this
point of view will give to others, who may not be specialists in any
one department, a broader and swifter view of the whole subject
of Greek civihsation and history than is possible by any other
simple method in the same limited space. For what can tell of
the Greeks more worthily than the actual buildings which the wants
and ideals of their civihsation determmed, their hands shaped,
and their wits defmed ?

Yet this wider historic view is only a subsidiary purpose. Our
busmess is to impart the lessons of architectural history in the
new hght, to give the architectural student a clear apprehension
of the historic significance of style. Nothing is more likely to
wean him from the misuse or feeble cop3nsm of its characteristics
than a grasp of their relation to surrounding circumstances To
this end, buddmgs will be studied in their plan and design, rather

INTRODUCTION

than in their details or furnishings. Architecture, more than
pottery or pamted decoration, is the work of a nation, the s 3 niibol
of a reUgion ; and the houses of gods and men are greater than the
idols and ornaments thereof.

The reason why it is essential m studying architecture to have
some regard for the broad views of history, rehgion, and society
IS that the purpose for which the building is erected is the greatest
controlling factor m shaping that building For example, it is
really of greater importance in the evolution of Greek architecture
that the Greeks devised shrines to house their gods and goddesses
and for the needs of their particular ceremonies, than that marble
was the building material which lay close at hand Material is,
of course, another influence, but a decidedly minor one Temples
were built of marble at Athens, and of limestone at Paestum and
Corinth, the only effect upon the design being a greater refinement
of detail at Athens the type is one and the sam'', and the type
was determined by tradition.

In what way to use tradition is the problem of modem archi-
tecture In earlier days an architect's retrospect was bounded by
the works of his grandfather, or at most by the primitive arts of
his own district But now Ihere is this difference, that it ranges
over the larger traditions of all architectural history, choosing the
good and refusmg the bad, and no doubt, if we but keep m touch
with Nature, out of this selective use will come in the fulness of
time a living art as noble as Greek, more cosmopohtan than
Roman, and perfectly characteristic of the age we live in

Progress m every department is attained only by making good
use of the experience of the past , and it is more to the point that
we should select and profit by the true and everlasting prmciples
of Greek art than that we should desire to know where the Greeks
came from, and who they were — ^matters that can never concern
us practically as architects or citizens ; since we cannot choose
for ourselves an Hellenic pedigree. Yet this sketch would be
strangely incomplete if in summarising the controlling factors of
Greek art we did not take mto account the origins of the Greek
race and the environment which mfluenced the development of
its civilisation.

The territory of Greece itself was, m ancient times, much as it
was defined on the maps of Europe before the Balkan Wars of
1912-1913, that is, with a northern frontier including Acamania

THE ARCHITECTURE OP GREECE

and Thessaly. But this territory, the part of Europe nearest to
Asia Minor and Egypt, is, of all the lands bordering on the
Mediterranean, more profusely indented in its configuration than
any other. Thus, while in area Greece was smaller than Scotland,
its coast hne was much longer than that of all Great Britain.
The whole country, furthermore, is a vast assemblage of high
mountain peaks, much recalling, though on a grander scale, the
steeper and rockier parts of the Western Highlands and Islands of
Scotland A labyrinth of land-locked bays and haibouis, of wild
mountain tracts and ravmes, it was divided and isolated one
part from the other, save for the means of communication that the
sea afforded. The natural harbours lie open to the east and south,
stretchmg out their long arms as if to invite and welcome the
sailor ; and the island stepping-stones fill in the great geographical
design, placed as if to lure the caiques from Crete and the coasts of
Asia Mmor. But on the other hand we have Crete and the numerous
Aegean islands, at one time the source from which came colonists
to the Greek mainland, and subsequently the destination of counlei-
currents returning from the Greek mainland, including both
fugitives seeking refuge and conquerors seeking expansion. This
eastward movement gradually engulfed the shores of Asia Mmoi,
and from that time Greece was to plant colonies around the grcatei
part of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Hemeroscopion in
Spain, Massiha m France, Sybaris in Southern Italy, Syiacuse and
Acragas m Sicily, Cyrene m North Africa, Naucratis in Egypt,
Smope m Armenia, and Olbia in Southern Russia, are but a few of
the more important settlements of this wonderful people, who,
while often at enmity with one another, and divided in dialect,
laws, and manners, yet spoke one language, worshipped the same
gods, and mingled in the same games and festivals.

Now it is not difficult for us to trace some relation between
the environment of the Greek race and their expression in art.
Their separation into small communities, and independent com-
paratively peaceful development , the necessities which drove
them to a seafanng hfe ; circumstances, also, such as the extreme
brilhancy, the lightness and bracing properties of their atmosphere ;
the clay, fine hmestone, and marble in which the soil abounded ;
the want of metal and other commodities which led to the necessity
for traffic with other lands ; these and other similar causes, it
is easy now to say, produced the types of Greek art. But there

INTRODUCTION

was a good deal more than this, whichever of the two great opposing
views of history we take — ^whether we are to regard aU this material
provision as a preparation for the Glory that was Greece/' or
whether we are to regard that glory as a kind of accidental or
fortuitous result of circumstances. Both schools would agree
to put it in this way : that it was in the race an instinct . a
tendency . an aspiration • an inspiration. Not that the Greeks
any more than others were '' a nation of artists " , but the instinct
in the select few was revealed and matured largely because the
nation prepared an atmosphere favourable to the culture of art.
They knew so well how to hve , their social economy was so perfect ,
they lived so close to Nature, in short, that they seem to have
produced the highest type of the natural man which the world
has yet seen

Greek architecture might be treated from either one of two
points of view, the analytical or the historical. We might, for
instance, investigate first the materials and methods of construction,
then the orders and other elements of design, and finally examine
one by one the various classes of buildings — temples, commemora-
tive and sepulchral monuments, administrative buildings, porticoes
and markets, gymnasia and baths, theatres, private houses, and
the like * Or we might, on the other hand, adopt a chronological
treatment, dividmg the field mto successive epochs, examining
the general characteristics of the civihsation of each period and
the ways in which these gradually modified the ideals and forms
of architectural expression. The latter method is more m keeping
with our purpose, which is that of studying the fundamental
principles of the style through the mfluences that shaped its
evolution and growth.

As for the subdivision into the successive periods, it happens
that every style of art shows a gradual evolution, the rise, the
brief culmination, and the dechne So also we may view Greek
architecture in such a way as to emphasise this principle, taking
as the central or culminatmg period that of the greatness of Athens
under Pericles (about 460-400 bc). Before it hes the archaic
period, the beginning of Greek pohtical power and art, closing
with a transitional stage at the epoch of the Persian Wars (600-
460 B c ) , and after the culmination, on the other hand, we have

* This analytical method is followed, for instance, hy Borrmann, Choisy,
Durm, Marquand, Stevens, and Benoit

THE architecture OF GREECE

the fourth century with its change of ideals, the beginning of the
dechne (400-300 B c ) Then we have the beginning and the end,
the primitive period in which the first germs of classical Greek
architecture appeared (1000-600 Bc), and the Hellenistic and
Graeco-Roman periods during which Greek culture was spread
over, and contaminated by, the entire eastern Mediterranean,
and so finally extinguished (300 b c to 300 ad.). Each of these
stages will be considered in a single chapter, with the exception
of the archaic period, wherein, because of the distinct cleavage
of the styles in accordance with two racial types, it is preferable
to treat separately the west and the east
But before this development hes a prelude, a sepaiate civilisation,
that of the Aegean age , and while this, too, might be traced, if
we had but the time, in the same detail with successive periods,
yet we may, smee it is not our mam subject, view it as one whole.

PLATE III

DORIC COLUMNS OF THE TEMPLE OF POSEIDON CORINTHIAN CHORAGIC COLUMNS ON THE SOUTH

PLATE IV

Chapter I

THE AEGEAN AGE

It is but fifty years since the history of Greek architecture
entered upon a new phase by reason of the discoveries of Dr.
Heinrich Schhemann at Troy, Mycenae, and Tiryns This phase
has been still further emphasised during the opening years of the
present century, by the researches of Sir Arthur Evans on the
island of Crete, brmging to hght the remains of a palace at Cnossus,
several centuries older than that which Schhemann discovered
at Tiryns, and containing revelations of so early a civilisation
that, as Evans says, one might imagine a new record had risen
from the earth The piincipal discoveries here belong to the
sixteenth century b c , but they show so high a degree of civihsation
as to suggest many centuries of earlier development , while at
lower levels are strata through which this development can actually
be traced back to about 8000 b c To the drama of the history of
Greece, which not so long ago opened with the scenes of the IHad,
there has thus been unfolded at one and the same time a back-
ground and a prologue The Cretan excavations have shown that
the legend of Minos and his mantime power had a sohd foundation
in fact * The richness of this prehistoric period m every land of
decorative art, to which the treasures m the Mycenaean and Minoan
rooms of the Museums of Athens and Candia bear the most striking
testimony, has been such as almost to overshadow, for the time,
the glories of the Periclean age It will be our aim in this chapter
to gather and select out of the mass of relevant and irrelevant
matenal published on the subject some of the principal matters
of interest to the architectural student, especially those discoveries

* Even in the first edition of this work, containing the late Mr Anderson^s
lectures written in 1898, the legend of Minos was put forward as suggesting
the probable connection of Crete with the earhest civilisation of Greece.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

which give fuller significance to the later developments, and appear
to have influenced profoundly the course of Greek architecture
The district around Mycenae was, until twenty years ago,
regarded as the centre of a civilisation called, for convenience,
Mycenaean; but the discoveries in Crete have led archaeologists
to the conclusion that Mycenaean art was only a local development
of a much older one, extending over Crete and the whole of the
area about the Aegean Sea The broader title of Aegean may,
therefore, be regarded as more suitable for the entire epoch ^

The Aegean civihsation, however, concerns itself with two
distinct races at least, the islanders and the mainlanders The
islanders were non-Greek, of that neolithic Mediterranean stock
which had occupied the northern African and southern European
shores for thousands of years. The mainlanders, on the other
hand, were newcomers, Greeks, a branch of those Aryan peoples
who were migrating westward through central Europe, sending
offshoots at mtervals toward the south The stronghold of the
islanders was Crete, while the mainlanders occupied continental
Greece and Troy Certain ethnological changes, and the con-
temporary changes of style, permit a subdivision into periods
which correspond, from the standpoint of evolution, to those into
which we shall subdivide classical Greek architecture. These
periods may be summarised here, though the brevity with winch
we must consider Aegean architecture will not permit us to discuss
the styhstic variations of each phase.

We meet first a primitive period characterised by the neolithic
civilisationf, of which the beginnings go back, in Crete at least,
to 8000 B.C., while the lower limit may be placed, both in Crete
and on the mamland,J at about 3000 B.c , no trace of such a period
has yet been found in the smaller Aegean islands. This was

IS generally applied to the civilisation of Crete, Cycladic
to that of the singer Aegean islands, and quite recently the corrcsDondine
developi^nt on the mainland has been described as H^ladic in ^1 these
cl^s^cations, the epoch is minutely and somewhat mechanically divided
mto^ee penods and eight or nine sub-penods The Thessalian culture of
northern Greece js divided into only four periods I have preferred a chssi-
fic^mn based rather on the recognised stages of artistic evolu^tion,^rsugSstea

I This would include Thessalian I. *

THE AEGEAN AGE

loUowed by an archaic period, of which the initiation, at about
3000 B c m Crete and the other islands (which now for the first
time began to play a part), was doubtless due to the infusion
of a new " Armenoid '' stock from Asia Minor, bringing with it
copper from Syria or Cyprus, and minghng with the earlier
neolithic inhabitants. This period lasted in all areas until about
2000 B c , and was marked by the mtroduction of copper and
the gradual evolution of bronze.* On the mainland the period
clearly falls into two halves, in the first of which the civihsation
contmued to be purely neolithic, developed from that which
preceded it, though we meet in Eastern Thessaly an infusion of
new blood m the form of a migration of the Tripolje " culture
by way of Macedonia and Bulgaria from its trans-Carpathian
home , while in the second half the neolithic civilisation of
southern and central Greece was partly overwhelmed by an
invasion of the bronze-using islanders ; Troy remained purely
northern, but adopted the use of bronze Fresh arrivals from
the north, the “ Mmyan invasion of about 2000 B c which
regained the Peloponnesus for the mamlanders, backed by a fresh
wave of the Tnpolje ” culture which found refuge in Thessaly,
fleeing before the Ukrainian tumulus-folk who now spread across
Bulgaria and Thrace and north-western Asia Minor (overwhelming
the second city of Troy), ushered in the transitional period (2000-
1650 B c ) ;t the islanders, on the other hand, retained supreme
control of the sea, and m the security of Crete and the other islands
developed their art to a surprising degree. The result was a
period of culmination, the golden age of the Aegean civihsation
(1650-1450 B c ),J in which the power of Crete was at its highest,
and her artistic supremacy (though probably not her political
suzerainty) was accepted by the Mmyan rulers of Mycenae
and Tir 5 ms , these northerners, however, were already beginning
to undermine the Cretan empire, by seizing some of the islands,
such as Melos and Paros Later came another wave of northerners,
the Achaeans, whose advent begins a period (1450-1100 bc)
characterised by a slight declme in taste, the silver age of the

* This IS Early Minoan (Cycladic) I-III and Middle Mmoan (Cycladic) I
of the island systems, Thessahan II-III and Early Helladic I-III of the
mainland systems of chronology

t This IS Middle Minoan (Cycladic) II-III, and in part Thessalian IV
and Middle Helladic I- 1 1

t 1 his is Late Minoan (Cycladic) I-II, Thessalian IV and Late Helladic I-II.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF OREKCE

Aegean civilisation, corresponding to the fourth centuiy in classical
architecture,* they, more venturesome than their predecessois,
plundered and destroyed the Cretan cities (about 1400 BC.); and
even raided the coasts of Asia (Troy, about 1250 and 1193-1184 b c ;
Caria and Cyprus, 1225 b c ) and Africa (Egypt, about 1230 and
1190 B c ) The Achaeans thus established their political supiemacy
and their language, and brought the island cultuie to an end ,
but they adopted the arts of the people whom they displaced ,
and their reflection of Cretan art continued to develop until they
in turn were overwhelmed by their own brethren, a final and
ruder wave of Greek invaders, the Dorians (1104 B c , according
to the traditional dating). But for this catastrophe the evolution
would have continued through further stages of decline , and
indeed we have suggestions of such a decline in the (siib-Mycenaean)
survivals of the Aegean culture in island fastnesses such as
Aegina, and in the cities wherein the fleeing Achaeans souglil
refuge, as at Troy, Miletus, and on the islands of Rhodes and

Cyprus.f

The centres of the Cretan civilisation v^ere Phaestus on the* south
coast and its rival Cnossus on the north At first, during the
archaic period, owing to affiliations with Egj pt, Phaestus seems
to have been the stronger , but during the transitional period the
two cities were on equal terms, Cnossus having found a means of
building up an empire over the Aegean islands toward the north ,
and so strong did this Empire of Minos become, that in the period
of the culmination Cnossus was supreme The other Cretan
cities and towns, Gourma, Malia, Mochlos, Palaikastio, I’seira,
Sitia, Tyhssos, and Zakro, were subject to these two mam centres.
Among the Aegean islands, Melos (Phylakopi) was of the greatest
importance because it was the centre of the obsidian trade, and
hence it was one of the first outposts to be wrested from Cnossus
by the mamlanders ; of less importance were Naxos and Paro.$

♦ This IS Late Minoan (Cycladic, Helladic) III, with the end of Late
Mmoau (Cycladic, Helladic) II

t The chronology of the Aegean age is still in a state of fluctuation, since
every new excavation affords fresh evidence and alters the perspective.
See, in general, Bury, History of Greece (new ed 1924), pp. 6-84; Hall
(H R), Ancient History of the Near East (3rd ed 1916), pp, 31-72 ; Wace
(A J B ), in Whibley, Companion to Greek Studies (3rd ed 1916), pp, 23-
34 j Harland, Harvard Studies, xxxiv, 1923. pp, 1-62 j Wace and others
in the Cambridge Ancient History, I (1923), especially pp. 92-9,3. 103-106.
136-142, 173-180, 689-616, II (1924), pp. 26-31, 286-290, 431-617.

THE AEGEAN AGE

(which then shared a monopoly in marble), Senphos and Siphnos
(the centres for various minerals), Syra and Thera The distant
island of Cyprus, south-east of Asia Minor, on the fringe of the
Aegean area, was one of the richest distncts because of its control
of the copper market. Likewise Troy (Hissarhk), at the north-west
corner of Asia Minor, though lying at the very edge of the Aegean
area, rose to special prominence because of its commanding
position at the entrance to the Black Sea, in a region of silver
mines, nine successive settlements ranging in date from the
primitive village of about 3000 B.c at the bottom to the Roman city
of Ihum at the top — six of them destroyed during the Aegean
period— bear witness to the jealousies and struggles of its
neighbours to secure this lucrative position. On the Greek
mamland, held partly by the uncultured northerners and partly by
weak outposts of the islanders, many centuries elapsed before
any site was able to rival the splendours of Crete, Cyprus,
and Troy The Thessahan settlements (Dirmni, Rakhmani,
Rim, Sesklo, Tsangh), those of central Greece (Chaha opposite
Chalcis, Hagia Manna m Phoas, Lianokladi, Orchomenus,
Thebes), of Attica (Athens, Eleusis, Menidi, Spata, Thoricus),
Thermum in the far west, the Argive group (Argos, the Argive
Heraeum, Asine, Mideia, Mycenae, Naupha, Tiryns, Zygouries,
Korakou and its neighbours near Corinth), the other Pelopon-
nesian centres (Sparta, Messenian Pylos, Triphyhan Pylos or
Kakovatos, Olympia), and the Ionian islands (Cephallenia,
Leucas), were, in comparison, mere villages. But from their
number developed the centres of the last phase, the silver age,
of the Aegean civilisation the twm rulers of the Argive plam,
Mycenae and Tiryns ; the twin guardians of the Copaic lake, Gla
and Orchomenus, Thebes, the city of Cadmus; and, last and
least important, the city of Theseus, Athens

Before we begin the study of the monumental structures,
we may weU take account of certain valuable evidence
presented by remains of a more humble and elementary
character, the houses of the people For it was always from
the private houses that was developed the dominant
architectural type in which the history of each epoch can be
most easily traced

The private houses differed according to the racial charactenstics
of the inhabitants, that is, Mediterranean '' Cretans ” or Aryan

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

Greeks Among the former
we find the southern type of
house, rectangular, shallow
and wide, with a terraced
flat roof. On the Greek
mainland we find the northern
type, originally of ciicular or
horse-shoe plan, eventually
rectangular, but always deep
and narrow, with a sloping
roof. The differing elements
later intermingled to a shght
extent, as the Cretan civilisa-
tion was imported or imitated

Fig 1 — ^Neolithic House at mainland, or when

Magasa, Crete the Achaean Greeks subse-

quently invaded Crete ; but
in general they may be regarded as fundamentally separate
architectural styles.

The Cretans, at a period long antedating the earliest remains
of their houses, had lost all recollection of a nomadic state and of
the circular nomadic hut, unless we are to suppose that the few
early circular tombs (dated between 2700 and 2000 B.c.) dimly
reflect such a tradition. The houses themselves, and most of the
tombs (which reflect house forms), were rectangular from the
very beginning (Fig. 1) ,* a typical form is the so-called but and
ben'* scheme of two rooms, an outer living room and an inner
bedroom. As the civihsation became more advanced, the houses
began to contain additional rooms, spreading over larger areas ;
and since in such complex plans it was impossible to provide outside
light m all cases, central courts, and even additional light wells,
made their appearance. The tendency was to use wide but shallow
units, with two or more doorways in the longer wall of the rectangle.
In the more pretentious houses, even as early as 2000 b c., wooden
columns were employed to permit deeper rooms ; and when these
occurred in an upper storey, they were supported on square stone
piers in the lower storey. Such complicated and irregular plans
could not have originated if the roofs had not been flat, as was
generally the case among the southern peoples ; and the flat roof,

♦ Possible neolitliic examples occur at Magasa and Trypiti.

THE AEGEAN AGE

in turn, suggested the superposition of an additional storey, and the
insertion of stairways. In the towns, where the areas were more
restricted, the houses seem to have compensated for this in height ,
the small faience plaques found at Cnossus (Plate IV) show houses
in two or even three storeys with flat terrace roofs and small roof
attics above the stairways to the terraces, all dating from before
1700 B c , the ground storey is blank except for one or two doorways
symmetrically placed ; the upper storeys show windows framed
in timber, containing two, four, or six panes subdivided by
mullions and transomes The lower portions of the walls were of
rubble, the upper parts of sun-dried bricks framed in wooden
beams set both horizontally and vertically, the whole covered
with rough lime plaster , the latter, in turn, might be coated
with red wash, or the decorations might emphasise the form of the
half-timbered construction of the walls, with horizontal tie beams
and the round ends of floor and roof beams
The type of rectangular house, with local variations, migrated
with the Cretans to the other islands and the mainland. Thus we
find it in the first settlement at Phylakopi (Melos), before 2000 B c.
A httle later, before the eruption of 1600 b.c., the houses of Thera
were being erected of irregular blocks of lava, bonded with branches
and logs of olive wood, roofed with a layer of earth and stones
one foot m thickness, supported on wooden beams ; wooden columns
or stone piers were employed when mtermediate supports were
necessary , doorways and windows were spanned, not by wooden
lintels, but by corbelled stones Such island forms came to the
mainland after 2500 B.c. ; at Zygouries, south of Corinth, are
small rectangular houses with flat roofs and very irregular plans,
though generally there was one main chamber of square plan m
each house, very different from the northern megaron. A more
inexphcable instance of the spread of the southern t 3 ^e on the
mainland occurs at Tsangli (Thessaly), where the houses are square,
each wall with two internal buttresses, while one house has also a
row of four interior columns in the centre, dating from the pnmitive
(neolithic) period , the construction consisted of low stone founda-
tions or siUs, on which the walls were carried up m sun-dned bnck.
On the Greek mainland, however, the normal form of the earhest
houses was the circular hut common to all nomadic peoples , the
most developed forms, with circular sills composed of flat stones on
which were reared beehive domes, first of wattle-and-daub and then

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

of sun-dried bnck, are to be found at Orchomenus in Boeotia (Fig 2 ) *
and at Sesklo in Thessaly, On account of the difficulties of domical
construction and the mconvenience of hvmg in such houses, the

Fig 2 — Sections of Circular Huts at Orchomenus
(Restored by Bulle )

walls were sometimes made vertical, and were covered by a low
conical roof made of reeds, leaves and mud, as we see it represented
in an urn from Amorgos Such a house might be enlarged by the
i uxtaposition of two or more circular huts (Plate IV) , t ^-Rd when these
were eventually connected by walls the result was the elliptical
plan found at Olympia Such elliptical huts might in turn be 3 oined
together, two at right angles in the form of a letter L, as at Thermum ;
and it is mteresting to note that in these examples the curving
vaulted roofs were still retained. But it was more usual to obtam
separate rooms by subdividing the ellipse, using internal partitions
as at Rini in Thessaly, and at SitiA in Crete (a northern importation)
The next step was the opening of the entrance, giving the horseshoe
or hairpin plan, short or long, observable at Olympia, Orchomenus,
and elsewhere The gradual straightening of the walls until the
sides became parallel, with a fa9ade wall at right angles containing
the doorway, marks the beginning of the rectangular plan , the
entrance, as determined by the open mouth of the horseshoe,
remained at the square end opposite the apse. Interior cross walls,
parallel to the fa9ade, in effect form a rectangular plan with the apse
attached (Fig. 3 ), as in examples at Paros, Rakhmani (Thessaly),
Thermum and Korakou (Corinth) . The apse then formed a sleeping
chamber, the thalamus , and gradually the front portion was

* The two examples shown are about 26-26 feet m external diamctei
t The um from Melos is a representation of seven of these circular huts
grouped round three sides of a central court, of which the fourth side is closed
by a wall with an entrance porch.

t The example at Sitia, apart from its elliptical outline, is thoroughly
Cretan, with a central light court , it is of great size (46 by 74 feet in plan),
and dates from about 2000 b c

THE AEGEAN AGE

cut off to form a porch or
prodomus As the plans became
elongated, we must suppose that
the roof, retaining its traditional
pitched form — or, as at
Thermum, pointed vaulted
section — acquired a horizontal
ridge, sheddmg rainwater toward
^ either side and probably also
toward front and back the
open porch on the fagade must
have had a horizontal hntel rest-
mg on the antae or thickened ends
of the lateral walls , and above
it we are probably to restore,
not a gable, but horizontal
eaves, with a low hipped roof.

The next step was the straight-
ening of the apse, which became
segmental at Rakhmani, poly-
gonal at Lianokladi (both in
Thessaly), until eventually it was made perfectly straight, so that the
rear room, and with it the entire plan, became wholly rectangular ;
the entrance remained, however, at one of the narrow ends The
resultmg plan (unless, as sometimes happened, the thalamus was
m a separate building) was a rectangle of three compartments, the
central one bemg the largest ; in the middle of this main com-
partment was the hearth, which was the centre of social intercourse
and hospitahty , our traditions of the fireside, the hearth and the
home, thus go back to the beginning of European civilisation in
Greece Such plans appear, for instance, in the Second and Sixth
Cities of Troy (the walls m the latter being of hewn stone) ,f and m
the Second and Third Cities at Melos (which after 1660 b c seems
to have been a mainland outpost) Probably at this time the ridge
roof began to be termmated by gables at both ends { Further

■** A flat terrace roof would hardly be logical with the circular or even with
the apsidal plan

t Unfortunately the house plans of the First City of Troy are still unknown
f It is often assumed that the roofs of these buildings, especially those of
more monumental character, were flat But apart from tiie racial character-
istics of this northern people, we have certain specific evidence, such as the

Fig 3 — Apsidal House at
Korakou, Corinth

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

developments consisted in the widening of the plan, which necessi-
tated the introduction of mtermediate supports, a row of columns
or posts along the central axis of the rectangle (Fig. 4). sustaining,
not the ridge-pole,* but the horizontal ceiling beams running from

Fig 4 — Rectangular House at Korakou, Corinth*

side to side. The posts were of wood, resting on stone bases ; there
might be two or more in the great hall, and one at the centre of the
fa9ade of the prodomus between the antae or in-antis, as at Korakou
(Corinth) and in the Sixth City of Troy (where the main chamber

urn from Melos, an. intagUo from Mycenae, the roof sections of rock-cut tombs
at Mycenae, Nauplia, and Spata, and masses of clay and leaves from sloping
roofs at Mycenae, Sesklo and Troy, to show that they sloped to a central ridge.

♦ The opimon that such single lines of supports rose to the ridge-pole is
controverted by the temple at Heandna.

THE AEGEAN AGE

measures 27^ by 50 feet).* When even greater width was desired,
two rows of intermediate supports were used, but never more than
two , and with two columns in the width it was obviously a ques-
tion of supporting a transverse ceilmg girder rather than a longi-
tudinal ridge-pole ; such forms, showing on the fagade two columns
between antae, occur at Dimmi and Sesklo (Thessaly). This stage
gives us the fully developed megaron type of the Greek mainland t

We are now prepared to investigate the more monumental
structures for which the private houses served as models, namely,
the palaces. The latter are, as it happens, the most important
works of the Aegean civihsation Just as the course of classical
Greek architecture is most apparent in the development of one
t37pe of building, the temple, so that of primitive Greece is best
examined m the characteristic structure of the period, the palace.
The Aegean king, furthermore, was the predecessor of the Greek
god Not only were the palace and the temple respectively the
supreme productions of the two epochs, but we have abundant
hterary and monumental evidence that the Greek temple, if not
the hneal descendant of the Mycenaean palace, at least had an
ancestry m common

Of the palaces there are, again, two leading types, corresponding
to the two phases of the Aegean civilisation, the Cretan (island)
and the Mycenaean (mamland). In Crete we have two important
examples, the palace at Cnossus already mentioned, and a second
but smaller palace excavated by the Italians at Phaestus. On
the Greek mainland, again, there are two examples of exceptional
importance, the palaces of Mycenae and Tiryns. These types
are easily distinguishable in the planning and arrangement of their
component parts

The palace at Cnossus (Fig, 5), of which the principal part of
the plan was recovered by Evans in 1900-1905, measured about
400 feet each way, and was built on an emmence round a court

* This example at Troy is sometimes wrongly explained as a temple
t On account of the successive waves of northern tribes, each arriving with
traditions of the nomadic hut which their predecessors had forgotten, we find
the evolution from circular to rectangular house several times repeated Thus
in the period before 2000 b c we can trace the complete evolution from circle
to rectangle, while between 2000 and 1460 b c we retrace the evolution from
elhpse to rectangle m the hands of the Mmyans ", the Achaeans undoubtedly
brought the same traditions, reflected m their beehive tombs , and when
Greece fell into the hands of the Dorians we once more revert to the horseshoe
plan

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

200 feet long by 86 feet wide, running nearly north and south ;
the total area is more than six acres. On the south and west sides
were the principal Halls of State and the King*s Entrance , on
the east side was the private residence of the king and queen, which,
built on the slope of the hill, occupied a lower level ; and at the
north end was the chief entrance to the couit and the offices

Fig 6 — Plan of the Palace at Cnossus

The entrance from the open space on the* west, which may be
regarded as the Agora, seems to have been left quite unprotected ,
whilst on the east side the private residence opened on gardens or
terraces, probably sheltered and made more private by trees, but
enclosed by little more than a garden wall, with a single bastion
Almost the only means of defence at Cnossus would appear to have
been a tower or bastion at the north, commanding the mam road
from the city and port At the south descended a great stairway
to a stone platform, whence a bridge crossed the ravine and led to
the road southward to Phaestus

THE AEGEAN AGE

Although at first sight the plan with its great central court and
mam entrance at the north end, and the walls all built at right
angles to one another, would suggest its having been set out
symmetrically or on a well considered program, yet further study
shows that it varies widely from the principles of symmetry and
axial planning The walls of the west front jut out mto the
western court at varying distances , in the central court there are
projecting blocks at the north-east and south-west corners The
northern entrance passage is not quite m the axis of the central
court ; the great corridor of the east wing is very nearly on the
transverse axis of the court, but there is no corresponding feature
at the west

The walls of the western wing of the palace, as now existmg,
consist only of a basement about 8 feet in height, the floor of which
IS a httle below the level of the central court. With the exception
of one hall, to which the title of '' throne room ” has been given,
there are no architectural features in this basement storey which
it IS necessary here to discuss The wmg consists chiefly of an
endless series of storerooms and magazines, which m their sohd
masonry and general construction were far superior to that of the
ephemeral materials of which the upper floors were built, and
therefore permit us to make a conjectural restoration of the main
floor

The secondary state entrance was m the south-east comer of
the west court, through a portico of one column in-antis , the
Cretan architects generally preferred to use one column as an
mtermediate support (if the span were not too great), rather than
to encumber the entrance with two columns From this, at one
side of a guard room, opened a corridor 10 feet wide, its walls
decorated with pamtmgs representing a state procession This
corridor led southward to a terrace 28 feet wide and extending
along the southern edge of the palace for a distance of 186 feet ,
it was probably covered with a roof supported by two rows of
columns , the ground outside the palace was at this pomt about
10 or 12 feet below the level of the terrace. It is possible that
one or more passages led north from this terrace to the central
court , but greater emphasis was laid on a passage of which the
axis lay only 85 feet from the west end of the terrace, a propylon
the fa 9 ade of which seems to have consisted of one column in-antis,
while the wall behind was pierced with three doorways North

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

of this cross wall the passage continued for 41 feet between flank
walls 30 feet apart , as this was too gieat a span to be roofed
conveniently without intermediate supports, we may suppose that
it was subdivided into three aisles by two lines of columns, five
in each row, the two column bases nearest the cross wall having
actually been found. Beyond this again was an open court, called
the Court of the Altar, the stone base of an altai having been
found in a rectangular recess on the right The level of the state
apartments was about 5 feet above the court, and was presumably
attained by a fhght of stone steps (of which all traces are now

gone) just opposite the propylon, leading up to a poitico The
great halls on this upper level have all perished, so that it was
only by the most minute examination of the upper parts of the
remaining walls that Evans was enabled to suggest a possible
plan, with the assistance afforded by the parallel in the palace at
Phaestus Under these conditions, however, the restoration must
be largely conjectural; and that usually suggested, with the
audience haU forming a compartment only 24 feet deep and 36 feet
wide immediately behind the portico, seems hardly in accordance
with the usual scale and magnificence of such halls. Rather should
we restore an inner vestibule just behind the portico, its ceiling
supported by columns, and met at right angles by a monumental
corridor 16 feet wide, approached by a flight of steps from the
central court Accordmg to this hypothesis, the audience hall

would be the great compartment about 42 feet deep and 48 feet
wide overlooking the west court, its roof supported by two columns,
for wMch heavy piers were carried down through the basement
magazines In these Cretan halls, placed in upper storeys, there
was no fixed hearth such as we shall find in those placed on the
ground level m the mainland palaces.

The only other hall m the west wing which it is necessary heie
to describe is that known as the " throne room '' on the lower
floor (Plate V). Through four doorways between piers facing the
central court one descends five steps to an anteroom, and thence
hrough two doorways enters a room measuring 20 feet long by
12i feet wide, in the centre of which, against the wall on the right-
hand side IS an alabaster seat with a high back of very unusual

JoTth «ther side is a low bench running

end, while the wall above was
frescoed with reclining chimaeras guarding the seat of honour.

PLATE V.

ALABASTER FRIEZE FROM CNOSSUS.

COLUMN WITH BRACKET
CAPITAL ON STONE
RHYTON

FROM HAGIA TRIADA.
(CANDIA MUSEUM.)

UPPER PART OF GREAT STAIRCASE AT CNOSSUS.

BOTTOM OF GREAT STAIRCASE AND LIGHT-SHAFT AT CNOSSUS.

THE AEGEAN AGE

Opposite the throne is an open court or light well, the floor sunk
about two feet below the level of the throne room and approached
by SIX steps ; this area was divided from the throne room by a
low parapet with columns in timber, for which sockets were sunk
into the parapet and into the stone bench before it.*

Commg now to the eastern wing of the palace, the floor of the
north half, about 13J feet below that of the central court, must be
regarded as a basement, there being no halls or residential room?
in it. Over it was a great hall at a level slightly below that of the
central court ; one evidently descended from the central court to
a portico, behind which lay an anteroom and a great hall with a
row of columns across the centre. This hall was almost symmetrical,
with the audience hall in the upper storey of the west wmg, and its
rear wall hkewise formed, at this high level, part of the outer wall of
the palace.

The most interestmg portion of the whole palace, however, is the
south-east block, because here we find the actual hving rooms of
the Mmoan kmg and queen (Fig 6). Its preservation is due to the
fact that it was built at a level so much (about 21 \ feet) below that
of the central court that it was buried by the falling in of the super-
structure. Here the plan of the mam group of apartments was re-
produced on two, and m part on three superposed storeys, aU hav-
ing the same monumental character The mam hall — about 26 feet
wide and 19 feet deep — ^is lighted from a court at its inner end,
while the outer end, in the two lower storeys at least, opens through
four doorways into a second chamber of the same width but only
17J feet m depth. The latter room had no fewer than eleven door-
ways, the four mentioned above and seven others leading out to a
peristyle which surrounded two adjacent sides of the room , thus
three sides of the outer room were composed solely of doorways and
their mtervenmg jambs (the doors bemg hung on pivots which
revolved in sockets in threshold and lintel, so that they could be
folded back into the reveals), and thus could be thrown entirely
open either to the inner room or to the penstyle outside Beyond

* The exact purpose of the sunken area has been disputed, and it is
sometimes regarded as a tank for a bath, though no outlet is provided, so
that it could only have been used m connection with a terra-cotta tub , it
IS, furthermore, only one of several examples scattered through the palace,
and others occur at Phaestus The plan of the " throne room,'* with its
throne, bench, and tank, resembles a hall of initiation dedicated to Men
Ascaenus and a Mother Goddess near Antioch m Pisidia, so that likewise
at Cnossus it may have been a hall of religious ceremonial.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

the peristyle, in turn, lay a terrace about 49*feet wide, overlooking
the valley ; and other narrow terraces projected at lower levels

Fig. 6 —Detail Plan of the Domestic Quarter at Cnossus.

^til the natural slope of the hill was reached at a point fifty feet
below the level of the central court.

Other rooms of sunilar character but on a smaller scale lie south

THE AEGEAN AGE

of those described above, and m immediate connection with them
by means of circuitous corridors and wmding stairways; these
smaller rooms therefore probably formed the queen's suite, a sugges-
tion which is confirmed by their strict isolation. The main room
IS only 19J feet wide and 14J feet deep , it opens eastward, by
means of a doorway and three windows, to a shallow portico, and
this in turn, though it might have opened directly upon the broad
terrace, is nevertheless shut off from the outer world by a sohd
wall enclosing a light court with a frescoed landscape to alleviate^
confinement The walls of the mam room consist, as in the king’s
suite, almost entirely of openings ; there are five doorways and
seven windows At the east is the above-mentioned portico with
the hght couit, at the south is another light well, at the
north are doorways to a corridor and a stairway, and at the west
IS a bathroom which borrows hght through a window and a
doorway, and a corridor which leads to a retiring room containing
a plaster or stone couch, with a toilet room adjoming The suite
likewise is reproduced almost without change in the upper
storeys

On the north side of the king’s suite is a straight corridor
running across the entire east wing, its inner end, toward the
central court, being lighted by a court surrounded by columns
11 feet 2 inches in height (Plate VI), and giving access to a stone
staircase, with return flights leading up through three storeys and
reachmg above the level of the central court. The fhghts are 6 feet
wide, with a central wall newel 3 feet thick, which allows of three
steps on the return between the landings ; each run contains twelve
steps, so that there were twenty-seven steps in each storey— eighty-
one in all— besides an additional landing at the very bottom. The
steps have a rise of 6J inches and a tread of 18 inches, and consist of
sohd slabs of gypsum, finished on the bottoms where they formed
the roof of the flight below, and built seven inches into the wall
on either side Light is borrowed from the small court, the wall
enclosing the staircase on this side consisting almost entirely of open
colonnades rismg parallel to the steps, so that the masonry is
carried by wooden columns and lintels (Plate VI), a fact which
materially increased the difficulty of its preservation The recovery
of this staircase, as Sir Arthur Evans remarks, ” is probably
unparalleled in the history of excavation, fhghts of stairs one above
another being unknown even in Pompeii ”

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

One of the most interesting adjuncts of the palace is the theatral
area at the north-west, with low step-like seats enframing a
rectangular area which apparently served for ceremonies, pageants,
or sports. An attempt has even been made to bring it into connec-
tion with the buIl-fights which are so frequently represented on the
frescoes of the Aegean age, and which may have been the source of
the legendary Mmotaur supposed to have inhabited the labyrinth —
the palace of Cnossus * But we must assume that the bull-fights
were held elsewhere , the theatral area was not designed to protect
spectators of this dangerous sport.

The existing portions of the walls consist of gypsum or limestone
blocks, forming merely a dado ; the upper parts were built of
unburnt brickf or rubble masonry with clay mortar and enclosed
in timber framing; this ephemeral construction was protected
by stucco on which painted patterns repeated the structure of the
wall behind, the painted representations of timbers even imitating
the wood graining with all its knots Other paintings and
porcelain tablets (Plate IV) found in the nuns suggest that the
crowning feature of the wall, represented by circular disks or
decorative rosaces, may have symbolised the ends of logs of
wood supporting the roof Among other valuable architectural
discoveries are the stone bases of columns found in various parts
of the palace, flat disks like truncated cones, the earlier examples
fairly high (up to 18 mches), carved in party-coloured stones
and resembling Egyptian models, the later very low (about 2 or
3 inches). Still more important is the fact that from charred
ends in the “ throne room,"' and impressed moulds in other places,
it was possible to reproduce even some of the column shafts,
which were of cypress wood (Plate VI). For the capitals,
which must likewise have been of wood, it was necessary
to depend upon the representations of columns in small objects,
such as carved ivories, and especially on what is called the
“ Temple fresco,*' a painting which had adorned one of the walls
(Plate VII)

The capitals thus restored combined several members : at the
bottom was an astragal between two fillets, above which came a

the* fisco'S of ^^^y^nths or mazes figure among the designs on

but IT® if®? Gournia, Palaikastro, and 7akro ;

THEATRAL AREA IN THE PALACE AT PHAESTUS.

THE MEGARON AT TIRYNS (RESTORED BY REBER).

THE AEGEAN AGE

necking in the form of a hollow, then a full spreading echinus,
sometimes terminated by another hollow to separate it more
distinctly from the square abacus at the top * * * § The abacus had
a great projection ; in the staircase court, where it had to carry the
superstructure and the cross beams of the upper floor, it was
3 feet 6 inches square. The shaft of the column, furthermore,
tapers downward, the diminution being about one-seventh. It
would seem that the Cretan architects recognised that the trunk
of a tree was capable of carrymg weight, whether in its natural
position or inverted, and that when employed in the latter position
the ram would more readily fall off it, and thus preserve it better ,
it had the further advantage that, with its greater diameter at
the top, an increased support was given to the abacus f But
other columns (Plate V), of which no monumental remains have
been found, f bemg known only from representations on stone
vases and wall paintmgs, tapered in the opposite direction,
diminishing upward, and hence were probably constructed of
bricks or rubble They were crowned by rectangular bracket
shaped capitals, suggestive as the forerunners of the Ionic capital ;
though the Aegean peoples seem never to have taken the next step,
the adornment of these brackets with spiral scrolls or volutes,
in spite of the fact that Egyptian ornaments, identical with those
which afterwards formed the prototypes of the Ionic capital,
were even then being imported into Crete and Mycenae. § And
as the most interesting decorative feature may be noted the so-called
" trigl37ph frieze '' (Plate V), similar to examples found at Mycenae
and Tiryns (Plate VIII) but frequently used in Crete to adorn the
faces of benches II

* The button-like metal projections from the hollows, shown m the paint-
ings and sometimes interpreted as double sixes, were intended for the attach-
ment of hangings or awnings

t Such downward tapering columns were independently evolved in the
megalithic architecture of the west Thus in an elliptical grotto at Telati
de Dalt, m the Balearic Islands, the roof slabs are supported on a central
column of which the capital, a cushion shaped block 1^ feet high and 5 feet
m diameter, rests upon a shaft only 4 feet high, 2 feet 1 inch m diameter at
the top and only 1 foot 7 inches at the bottom

i J Outside the Aegean area, however, some limestone examples, with cubical
capitals decorated with disks and double-axes, have recently been found at
Baeza in Spam, used as second-hand building material in a Roman bathing
estabhshment [Rev Arch XXIII, 1926, p 260 )

§ Cf tile carved ivory tusk from Mycenae (Athens Museum, No 2916)

!j The assumption that this motive is the ancestor of the Greek Done
triglyph frieze is hardly tenable

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

The palace at Phaestus (Fig 7), excavated by the Italians
in 1900-1907, resembles that at Cnossus in the orientation with
the long axis of the court running north and south, in the grouping
of the rooms round this central court, in the details of the planning
of the rooms themselves, in the presence of an open west court
with the theatral area, and in the secondary entrance, through
a small propylon with a single column between antae, at the southern
end of the west court Probably the mam approach, now lost,
was at the south The outer limits of the palace are not yet very
well defmed, except on the west, but its greatest dimensions would
seem to have been about 350 feet by 400 feet, so that it was
practically as large as its rival at Cnossus The dimensions of the
central court, 73 feet by 163 feet, are slightly smaller ; but on the
other hand the use of open porticoes on both long sides, columns
alternating with square piers, gives it a more monumental
appearance. At Phaestus, furthermore, the arrangements of the
pubhc rooms are more easily discerned A flight of twelve steps
(Plate VTI), 46 feet wide, leads up from a terrace overlooking the
theatral area to a great propylon or propylaeum, of which the
outer portico has one column in-antis, while the inner portico
has three, facmg upon a hght court From this inner portico
lateral doorways gave access, on the one hand, to a stauway
leading to an upper storey, and on the other to the audience hall
which, as at Cnossus, was above the level of the mam court, with its
back overlookmg the west court A small stairway beyond the small
hght court descends to the portico of the great central court.
Under the audience hall were magazines, not as at Cnossus all on
one side of a long corridor, but short and symmetrically placed
on either side of a central corridor This symmetrical arrangement
facihtates the restoration of the great rooms above, the portico, the
ante-room, and the audience hall. The private quarters, which
at Cnossus are found on the lower levels to the east, are here built
on the higher levels toward the north. But, apart from this
variation to fit the site, we have the same general arrangement
of the rooms, such as the haU with four sets of folding doors in each
of two ad]ommg walls, givmg access on one side to a small portico
facing upon a hght court, and on the other to a larger portico
faang the exterior. A different feature however is the greater
prevalence of peristyle courts; not only is the central court
lined with porticoes on two sides, but there is a smaller square

THE AEGEAN AGE

peristyle court at the north, and there are remains of another at
the east.

The palaces described above, however, were those of the period
of culmination, about 1650-1450 b c. ; both were preceded by
more rudimentary structures, of which we can trace several stages,
dating from their foundation at the beginning of the transitional
period, about 2000 B.c. Thus the great court then occupied its

Fig 7 — -Plan of the Palace at Phaestus

present position, though at Cnossus the area was slightly greater ;
and it was entirely surrounded by isolated blocks of buildings (at
Cnossus ten or eleven) devoted to various purposes * public offices,
private quarters, workshops, shrmes and magazines, with narrow
streets leadmg between them to the court or public square It
was the gradual bnking together of these separate blocks, the roofing
of the passages to form corridors, and the various alterations of
the mteraal arrangements of the blocks, that gave us the palaces
which we see to-day This consohdation took place at about

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

1800 B c., but the internal alterations were more gradual. Thus
at Cnossus, the great cutting for the domestic quarters on the
east, replacing the graded terraces by a sudden descent of two
storeys from the great court, dates from about 1800 b c , as do the
grand stairway and the very elaborate drainage system , but the
other rooms of this quarter were remodelled at about 1650 b c
and the so-called " throne room ” m the west wing is an alteration
of even later date At Phaestus the same process can be traced,
though here the differences between the transitional plan and
the final structure are even greater, some of the older rooms,
such as those buried in the west terrace (overlooking the theatral
area) being quite outside the area of the final palace

But there are, both at Phaestus and at Cnossus, relics of even
earher date, fragments of walls now unintelligible, belonging to
palaces of about 2260 b c With these, at Cnossus, are associated
subterranean chambers of uncertain purpose. The one which
has been excavated is circular, domed and somewhat bottle-shaped,
the diameter at the bottom being 27 feet, while higher up it is
34 feet, and the height from floor to crown of vault is 46^ feet
To it descends a curved stairway in a vaulted tunnel, winding
about half of the circumference of the chamber, with arched
openmgs through which artificial hght m the chamber itself would
illuminate the stairway.

Similar traits are displayed in the less pretentious Cretan
palaces at Tylissos, Maha, and Gournia. The small summer
palace near Phaestus, at the spot caUed Hagia Tnada, follows a
less formal plan, the scheme being that of two wings at right
angles. Of special interest on account of their unusual details
are the ''httle palace '' at Cnossus, connected with the great
palace by a paved walk, and the '' royal villa to the north-west,
reception hall of basihcan plan, and wooden columns of
which the shafts were still preserved, reeded rather than fluted
and tapermg downward

men we turn to the Greek mainland, and to the other areas
w^ch ^e under the sway of the northerners, we find very
erent ch^ctenstics, corresponding to the fundamental
dif^ences between the two types of private houses.

The citadel of Tiryns is described m Greek literature as "the
Mycraae,” and it is from the ruins of its citadel
palace that we best learn the character of the fortifications and

THE AEGEAN AGE

royal dwellings of the Heroic Age in Achaean Greece. But before
we describe the final form of the palace which crowned its acropolis,
we may note the traces of a much earlier building on the same
site, though at a lower level, discovered during the German
supplementary excavations in 1912 It is a great circular structure
built on a platform 91 feet in diameter , the walls are constructed
in two shells connected by ribs, with a total thickness of 13 feet,
and are strengthened externally by a series of buttresses arranged
like the cogs of a wheel ; the clear diameter of the mterior was
thus only 46 feet. The lower portion of the construction was of
stone, the upper part of sun-dried brick. It would seem as if this
were a magnified beehive
hut, one suited to the dignity
of the chief of a newly
arrived nomadic people ; and
all round it the crest of the
hill was covered with the
less imposing houses of his
followers, in three distinct
strata, and ranging through
ail the t3rpes from circular
to rectangular
A much later stage of
development appears at Troy,
of which the nine successive
strata were excavated by
Schhemann in 1870 - 1890,
and by Dorpfeld in 1893-1894 Already in the Second City,
destroyed at about 2000 b.c , we find that the rulers built imposing
halls of the developed northern type, long, narrow, and rectangular
(Fig. 8). Three such buildings stand side by side, independent
of each other but parallel, forming three suites of apartments
without party waUs such as we fmd in Crete, the mtervals between
them apparently havmg been left for the drainage of the roofs.
The most important contains an open porch 33 feet square, and
behind it a megaron of twice this depth, with a central circular
hearth, behind this the walls are prolonged as if there were a
rear room The walls are 4 feet 9 mches in thickness, the lower
parts of stone, while the upper parts are of mud brick (the bricks
18 by 27 by 4f mches), strengthened by wooden beams laid

Fig 8 — Plan of the Palace in the
Second City of Troy

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

lengthwise every four courses and connected by cross beams at
intervals of 13 feet The ends of the walls, the antae, had special
stone socles on which rose a protective facing of vertical planks
10 inches thick In spite of the great span, 33 feet, there were
no interior columns ; the transverse beams supporting the roof
must therefore have been braced by diagonal struts , m any case
we may restore a pitched roof, terminating in a gable over the
entrance* The adjoining buildings are narrower, but similar
in plan; one has an extra room between the porch and the
megaron Before the palace is a propylon, consisting of a gate
wall with an open porch before and behind, likewise without
columns.

Of the Sixth City, that of which Homer wrote, the traces were
missed by Schhemann, because the walls happened to have fallen
away at the point where he pierced the hill and the central portion
had been cut away in levelling operations by the Romans ; it
was discovered only m the final excavations by Dorpfeld The
palace, which stood on the higher part, is therefore missing ; but
from the plans of the private houses on the lower terraces it is
clear that the palace must have been of the type which we see
finally developed at Tiryns and Mycenae, to which we must
therefore turn.

At Tiryns the primitive beehive palace was eventually succeeded,
at about 1650 b c , by a great structure rivalling in dignity those
of Crete ; simultaneously was erected the earlier palace at Mycenae
In neither case is it possible to make out the plan, since both were
completely rebuilt in later times, so that we now sec only dis-
connected foundations and floor levels. Among the remains of
these earlier palaces are numerous fragments of magnificent wall
paintings, very similar in style to the frescoes at Cnossus.

Also the later palace at Mycenae, dating from the period of the
supremacy of the mainland (1450-1100 b.c ), is in poor preservation,
because the crest of the hill was levelled off when the primitive
Greek temple was built, while other parts of the palace, on a terrace
on the south slope, have fallen away into the ravine It was
excavated by the Greeks in 1886-1888, and restudied by the British
School in 1920-1923 The steep and winding ascent from the mam
gate of the citadel led to a small vestibule at the foot of a double
stairway 8 feet wide, which ascended to a reception room correspond
* HoUand suggests rather pointed barrel vaults r hoop roofs ’*)

THE AEGEAN AGE

mg to the " throne room " at Cnossus, and also gave access to the
south-west corner of the mam court, here only 38 feet square At
the north-west was, however, a propylon of the Cretan type, with
one column between antae. At the north-east comer of this court
was the megaron, of the long, narrow type of plan characteristic of
the mainlanders, with the portico distyle in-antis, givmg access
through one doorway to the antechamber, whence another central
doorway opened into a megaron 27 feet 9 inches wide and 42 feet
6 inches long, with four central columns enclosing a circular hearth
raised on two steps, covered with ten layers of pamted stucco The
floors had borders of gypsum slabs imported from Crete, and the
central portions were stuccoed and pamted ; in the antechamber,
for instance, there were three panels with dark red borders, filled
with zig-zags of red, pink, white and blue Several other rooms
exist, including storerooms and a magazme with great jars, a shrine
with two offermg tables, and a tank " with descendmg steps ,
but the general plan is obscure because of the destruction of part
of the foundations, and because of the confusion ansmg from its
arrangement on several levels, with at least two storeys m places ,
the latest excavations have revealed still m place the lower part
of a pine timber supporting a stairway, which ascended m two
flights from a doorway at one side of the portico of the megaron.
Some important room must have been at the upper level, where
large Mycenaean column bases were employed m the foundations of
the Greek temple built on this height. In all this work at Mycenae
we may observe a close imitation of the Cretan style, yet contammg
elements which are characteristic of the mainland, especially the
deep narrow megaron with its fixed central hearth; we may
suppose that the Achaeans imported artisans and designers from
Crete, msisting, however, upon results suited to their more northern
climate and to their ancestral customs. But for the study of details
we must turn to the later palace at Tiryns
In the rival stronghold of Tiryns, excavated by Schhemann in
1884, we find the most perfectly preserved of all the mainland
palaces (Fig. 9). The ascent through the two successive gateways
of the fortification (Plate IX) leads up to a third entrance, the outer
propylon, which is worthy of attention as the model of all the great
gateways of the Greeks, down to the Propylaea on the Athenian
Acropolis ; its disposition is that of a portico distyle in-antis,
46 feet wide, the doorway in the cross wajl admitting one to a

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

similar portico facing in the opposite direction This inner portico
opens upon k great court surrounded by columns , thence we pass
through a second propylon, similar to the first but only 36 feet
wide, and so mto the second court of the palace, again surrounded
by columns The bases of the columns stiU remain tn situ, and
consist of irregular blocks of limestone, with a circular die in the
centre of each, raised about 1|- inches above the ground in order
to protect the lower ends of the wooden shafts of columns , as no

Fig 9 — Plan of the Palace at Tiryns

capitals were found, they too were probably of wood In the
light of the discoveries at Cnossus there can now be no doubt that
these columns tapered downward toward the base,* like their
imitations in stone , the capitals were likewise of the Cretan
echinus type, which was imported to the mainland without change.

The second court possesses as its chief features the open altar
on one side, originally circular but afterwards rebuilt on a
rectangular plan, and opposite this the entrance to the men's
apartment, or megaron, of which the plan is almost identical with

tapered upward , the credit of insisting upon
Durm's assumption of a
diameter from bottom to top was based upon erroneous measure-

THE AEGEAN AGE

that at Mycenae. Everything indicates the predominance of this,
the largest covered apartment in the building (Plate VIII). Its
fa 9 ade, placed centrally on the court, presents the same arrangement
as the porticoes of the propyla, viz , two columns m-antis, the stone
bases of the columns and the stone phnths or socles of the antae
bemg still in situ. It has long been disputed whether the crownmg
feature was a horizontal comice or a pediment ; but in view of
the longitudinal plan and the racial characteristics of the people, the
pediment seems to be more probable (Plate VIII) * But the tnglyph
frieze of alabaster, inlaid with blue glass paste, frequently supposed
to have been a part of the entablature, is now known to have
formed a bench lining the lower parts of the side walls of the
portico, in a position somewhat analogous to the “ tnglyph friezes
of Crete. Beyond is an antechamber, approached from the portico
through three doorways (rather than one as at Mycenae), of which
the valves could be folded back into the thickness of the wall,
thus virtually throwing the two rooms together into one, as was
usually done m Crete Thence a large central doorway (without
pivot holes and so closed only by a curtam) led to the megaron
itself, a large room about 32 by 39 feet, the roof carried upon
four wooden pillars ; within the oblong formed between these
was the round hearth, and at one side, facing the hearth, was
the dais for the throne The arrangement of the four columns
has suggested to some that there was a clerestory, above , but
probably their sole purpose was to support the transverse girders
of the roof construction. The floor was of stucco, painted m a
checker design with the alternate squares filled with the octopus
or pairs of dolphms ; the plastered walls were pamted with
conventional ornament and with a frieze representing a hunt
Beside the megaron, but not accessible therefrom, is an inner court,
approached only by winding passages from the outer propylon
and from the inner propylon, and by a third passage which is
carried aU round the great megaron, thus ensuring a certain amount
of privacy. For off this court opened the private apartment, the
thalamos, similar m plan to the megaron but simpler and of smaller
dimensions ; thus the porch lacked columns, there was no inter-
vening vestibule, and on account of the short span (20 feet) the

* The internal evidence adduced from the whole plan of the palace, by
the supporters of the two opposing views, seems particularly weak. But
Reber’s restoration seems more justifiable than that of Perrot and Chipiez,
for instance, which ^gws the flat roofs characteristic of the islands.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

intenor columns were omitted, though the hearth remained in
the centre. Beyond, and parallel to this again, lay a third unit
consisting of an anteroom and main chamber, even smaller in
scale ; the series reminds us of the group of three parallel buildings
in the Second City of Troy. On the opposite side of the megaron
IS the bathroom, with a floor consisting of a single black stone
11 by 13 feet in plan. The rest of the area was occupied by smaller
rooms, some m two storeys ; but a noticeable characteristic of
this plan IS the disposition of all the important looms on the ground
floor, and the absence of the numerous small light-weUs of the
Cretan palaces imphes that the whole was kept low, permitting
the introduction of light through windows in the upper parts of
the main rooms. The corridors surrounding the megaron and
thalamos may have been for the use of slaves, serving to connect
the two sides of the palace without making use of the peristyles ;
they were in communication also with a small fhght of steps leading
down to what may have been the service courts of the palace,
and to the postern gate.

The palace thus discovered by Schliemann, besides giving the
clue to the distribution of the Homeric house as described in the
Oiyssey, betrays the origm of many features which we find repro-
duced in stone or marble in the perfected types of Greek architecture.
Thus the propyla, with their porticoes m-antis, developed into
such entrance gateways as those to the Acropohs of Athens, and
to the sacred enclosures of Olympia, Epidaurus, and elsewhere.
The portico in-antis of the megaron also is the elementary form
which IS to be found in almost every Greek temple, for although
in later times smgle or double peristyles were built round the
cella to give greater importance to the latter and to protect its
walls, nevertheless the pronaos or entrance to the cella remamed
virtually of the Mycenaean plan Even the grouping of the portico
and of the megaron behind, on the same longitudinal axis, is the
same which was afterwards revived by the Greeks for their temples.
Perhaps the most interestmg feature is that of the antae or
parastades. In consequence of the ephemeral nature of the
materi^ used m the waUs (rubble stone bedded in clay as a base
to the crude brick wall), a reinforcement of timber was employed
to protect the ends of the flank walls and to assist in supporting
the architrave carried by the columns ; this facing, at Tiryns,
was raised on stone plmths, bemg secured to the stone with dowels'

THE AEGEAN AGE

It was the same practice of placing the baulks of timber or posts
side by side to encase the ends of walls that gave rise to the antae
of the Greek temples, when they had no longer a constructive
but only an artistic function. In the partition walls such wooden
casing, forming the door jambs, was even more promment, and
likewise left its mark on subsequent architecture in stone , and,
although there is no mtemal evidence to prove that the jambs
inclined inward to lessen the bearing of the Imtel, yet this
inchnation is found reproduced in the tomb facades, suggesting,
therefore, its wooden ongin.

This later palace at Tir 5 ms was destroyed by fire, probably
shortly before the Donan mvasion ; and on the rums of its chief
megaron rose a smaller megaron, poorly constructed, utilismg the
foundations of one of the earher flank walls, and so locatmg the
other flank wall as to leave one of the column bases of the earher
facade exactly on the axis of the new structure. One of the cross
walls hkewise utihsed the older foundations, and the portico was
hned with rude benches, the whole forming an anticlimax to the
splendid Achaean megaron.*

A nameless fortress m the Copaic lake in Central Greece, now
known as Gla but sometimes identified as the Homeric Ame,
contains a palace of unusual plan, with two wings at right angles, f
each about 250 feet in length ; a great corridor extends along the
inner face of each wmg, servmg as the means of communication
between the great megaron, at the extreme end of the north wmg,
and the more private megaron at the opposite end of the east wmg
Each megaron has an antechamber, the latter entered from the
corridor at one side , the plan is thus distmctly northern in type,
so that we must imagine the roofs of the megara as slopmg to a ridge
and overtoppmg the rest of the palace. No columns were employed
The interval between the two megara is filled with smaller rooms,
in both wings, with a special service corridor just behmd the main
pubhc corridor.

Traces of other mainland palaces have been found at Orchomenus
(opposite Gla), at Thebes, and at Athens, but in such a fragmentary
state that they add little to our knowledge.

* These rums had always been regarded as those of a Greek temple, until
C, W. Blegen demonstrated their immediate connectioii with the Mycenaean
epodi.

j* Thus recalling the Cretan summer palace at Hagia Triada.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

These megara of the northerners are also found in regions which
were strongholds of the islanders Melos, as we have seen, came
under mainland influence in the period of the culmination (the
second city) ; and in the third city, belonging to the period of
dechne, we see not only houses but also a palace of the megaron
type The megaron has the position for the hearth marked in the
centre, but it must have been a poi table hearth such as was used
in Crete, since there is no trace of ashes ; before the megaron was a
portico 19^ feet wide and 15 feet deep, with great anta bases on
each side but with no central column base. On either side of tins
megaron are long corridors, that at the right giving access to parallel
magazines. This northern plan was even introduced into Crete
after the Achaean invasion of 1400 B.c., when all the great palaces
were destroyed by fire ; later palaces, of the megaron type, have
left their traces at Hagia Triada and at Goumia,

No discussion of the Aegean palace would be complete without
some allusion to its latest phase, the hterary tradition of such a
palace as it descended to Homer and was by him transmitted to us
The palace of Odysseus at Ithaca was described by the poet in such
detail that it has frequently been the subject of modern restora-
tions, at first on the analogy of the classical Greek house which
by no means fits the action of the story But since the discovery
of the Aegean palaces at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Gla, it has been
found that they agree better with Homer's description, so that
there can now be httle doubt that his ancestors, the lonians
who migrated from the mainland to Asia Minor, carried with
them the tradition or memory, at least, of the northern or mainland
type of palace.

In glancing at the plans of the island and mainland palaces we
are struck, not only by the differences in their elements, but also
by a difference in their surroundmgs. In all the Cretan palaces
and towns, and also in the first settlement at Phylakopi (Melos),
we note an entire absence of those walls of defence which in the
northern settlements were deemed to be of the greatest importance.
It IS not as if the Cretan architects were unacquainted with the
art of fortification ; in the " town mosaic " from Cnossus appear
towers and gates of regular ashlar masonry, and similar represen-
tations occur on a silver rhyton of Cretan workmanship from
Mycenae; but it is evident that the bulwarks of the Minoans
were rather in the wooden walls of their navy*

PLATE IX.

the lion gate at MYCENAE.

PLATE X.

DETAIL OF CAPITAL FROM THE TOMB
OF AGAMEMNON AT MYCENAE,

THE AEGEAN AGE

The northern method was very different. The palace itself
formed a citadel, placed on a low hill, and surrounded by strong
walls ; generally the houses of the nobles and retamers were hke-
wise included within the walls , but the agricultural classes were
scattered in unwalled villages, and only assembled within the walls
in time of war. Thus the citadel of Troy was too small to form
an actual city, containing a large population ; Tiryns was in a
large part bare of houses, the empty area withm the walls forming
merely an emergency shelter; the lower city at Mycenae was
unwalled in Mycenaean times , * Sparta likewise was an unwalled
town ; round Corinth have been identified eleven Mycenaean
villages within a radius of seven miles of the temple of Apollo,
which may yet prove to be the site of the central palace

One of the strongest sites in the archaic period was the Second
City of Troy,f of which the walls form an eleven-sided polygon,
with towers and angle bastions, and with a great gate tower
59 feet square, traversed by a road 11^ feet wide, the whole circuit
being only 1300 feet. Another gate is double, a sort of propylon,
with two gate walls enclosmg a vestibule, with porches outside
and mside. The ramps traversing the gates were carefully paved
The walls have a substructure of small hewn stones, at one pomt
28 feet high, the face battering at about 45 degrees, and crowned
by a wall of sundried brick, 13 feet in thickness and still remaining
to a height of 10 feet, strengthened by wooden beams 12 inches
square These walls show three successive states, the southern hue
having been twice demohshed for the sake of enlargement.

In the Sixth Citadel, a thousand years later, the walls formed
a circuit of nearly half a mile, enclosmg an area three and one-half
times that of the Second Citadel; the general plan is again a
polygon, but with facets only 30 feet long, meetmg at angles which
break forward 4 to 12 inches In these walls much more stone was
used, the battermg substructure being 13 to 17 feet in thickness,
and 20 feet high, crowned by a vertical wall of stone, 6 feet m
thickness ; though even here there seems to have been a super-
structure of mud bnck. There were probably four great towers,
of which the most important, at the north-east, 59 feet wide and
projecting 26 feet from the waU, enclosed a sprmg. There were
also four gates, more scientifically planned than in the Second

* The existing city walls are Hellenistic

t Even the First Citadel was strongly fortified, with a wall 8 feet thick

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

Citadel, necessitating a flanking movement along the wall as at
Tiryns and other mainland sites

In some of the smaller Aegean islands we find fortification
walls of uncertain date, probably erected under mainland influence.
The most important of these are the fortifications at Phylakopi
(Melos), belonging to the Second and Third Cities. These
walls are 20 feet thick, composed of two faces each 0^ feet thick,
with the interval divided by means of frequent cross walls into
cells, which were filled with rubble
In connection with the earlier palace at Tiryns only the upper part
of the atadel was fortified, and the same was probably true at
Mycenae ; the sites thus enclosed were barely large enough for the
palaces themselves. At Tiryns, for instance, this earlier fortifica-
tion was only 340 feet long and 220 feet wide, while its outer gateway
(with no actual gate) was situated under the third gateway of its
successor, and there must have been an inner gate behind it.

One of the first acts of the Achaean invaders, at about 1400 b.c ,
was the enlargement of the fortifications of Mycenae, with
Cyclopean masonry of less imposing character than that which
we shall note at Tiryns ; for the site, with its overhanging cliffs,
possessed greater natural advantages, and did not need such
heavy walls. The area enclosed was now roughly triangular in
shape, about 1,050 feet in length and at most 570 feet m width,
with a perimeter of more than 3,000 feet There is one postern gate,
but our chief interest lies m the main gate, the so-called *' Lion
Gate,*' which is m a fine state of preservation even though it
has been known since antiquity and was never buried (Plate IX).
The ascendmg ramp approaching it is 48 feet long and 30 feet wide,
with, as usual, a heavy wall on the right side. The illustration
shows the stone jambs of the doorway, and the stiU greater lintel,
which IS 8 feet broad, 3J feet high at the middle, and has a length
of 16 J feet, with a dear span of 9 feet. Such a lintel would assuredly
bear any superincumbent weight that the builders of these
fortifications were likely to put upon it ; but either from caution
or custom a triangular void was left, so as to relieve the lintel.
It was to fill this void that a limestone slab, 12 feet wide and at
present 10 feet high (Plate XI), was carved m relief with a heraldic
religious composition, symbohe of pillar worship, the sacred pillar
representing the great mother goddess, the protecting divinity
of the citadel. The central pillar is, perhaps, the most interesting

PLATE XI

DETAIL OF SCULPTURE OVER THE LION GATE AT MYCENAE

THE AEGEAN AGE

part of the composition to an architect , it stands on a kind of
twm pedestal or altar, with the shaft tapering downward,* and
a capital with echmus and abacus foreshadowing to a certain
extent the Greek Done , and this in turn is surmounted apparently
by a fragment of entablature, which, like the ornament over the
tomb doorways, suggests the wood log ceilings of the primitive
house The sculpture, the oldest on a large scale yet revealed
on the Greek mainland, shows a technical skiU in outline and
modelhng and even a nobility of expression (as in the resolute
fore-legs and paws) that give it a high place ; the heads have
disappeared, and the holes for fastenmg indicate that they were
carved separately (probably in steatite) in order to obtam a greater
rehef. The parastades running back from the jambs of the gate
were ongmally roofed over with wood to form a porch within
the entrance with a guard room at the left. It does not seem
possible to date this work earher than 1300 b.c , for it is clearly
not as old as the greater part of the fortification walls , the walls
in immediate connection with the gate had originally been of the
Cyclopean type, and probably had no actual gate between them ,
only afterwards, at the time of the insertion of the gate, were they
faced with regular ashlar, t

The later fortifications at Tiryns were built a little after those
at Mycenae, but still during the fourteenth century b c It was
then that the hill received its present shape, forming a stronghold
which bears a close resemblance to a fortified castle of the Middle
Ages, in outhne hke the shape of a shoe, about 950 feet in length
and 330 feet in width, and levelled to form three terraces The
lowest terrace, left absolutely bare with the exception of a great
storehouse or granary, and designed to form a refuge for the people
of the surroundmg villages in time of war, forms the heel, while the
upper citadel (Fig 9), the ball or forepart of the foot, is the part
best preserved, exhibiting the plan of the peristyles, propyla,
megara, and aU the lesser apartments of the dwelling of a great

♦Dunn’s tlieory tliat this shaft is cyhndncal is erroneous , the diameter
IS 12 i mches at the top and lOf inches at the bottom

t That the ashlar facing about the Lion Gate and the mam postern gate
are later insertions is shown by the similax ashlar masonry of the south-east
bastion of the citadel, which is clearly an addition The so-called mtermediate
or third class into which the masonry of the Aegean period has been divided,
that of polygonal type, seems really to be Hellenistic Greek ; for it is repre-
sented by three repairs m the walls of Mycenae which are apparently
subsequent to the destruction of the town m 468 b c.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

Achaean chief. The middle terrace, with a heavy wall to defend
it against the lower terrace if necessary, was occupied by the
houses of the retainers. Surroundmg the whole citadel, and in
places lying just outside that of the earher palace and lower on
the slope, is a high wall of enormous thickness, 24 to 57 feet,
constructed of great unhewn stones with the joints filled with small
stones and yellow clay (beheved by later generations to be the work
of a race of giants known as the Cyclopes, whose name is therefore
given to this kind of masonry) ; the stones are much larger than
those at Mycenae At two points, m the new portions of the outer
wall, are contrived galleries each with five or six lateral chambers,
at one time thought to have been for purposes of defence, but
now recognised as store-rooms ; hke the domed tombs to be
described later, these passages and chambers (the latter 10 feet
9 inches wide) are roofed by courses of stone in horizontal beds,
projecting one over the other, and cut on the under side to the
contour of a pointed arch (Plate XII) There are three postern
gates, two to the lower plateau, and the other to the palace proper ;
the latter is of peculiar interest because of its wmdmg stairway
(sixty-five steps are preserved) with high walls for the defenders
on both sides and the trap door over a deep ouhhette at the top
The principal entrance in the east wall is approached by an
inclined way, 19J feet wide, so arranged that assailants attempting
this path would be subjected to an inconvenient attack upon their
right flank, the side not protected by their shields, before they
could reach the gateless opening m the great wall. Even did
they carry this point they would merely find themselves m a
cul-de-sao between the outer and inner walls, with the strongly-
barred second gate (Plate IX) at the end ; or they might turn to the
right and penetrate the lower terrace , but m either case they would
stiU be opposed by the great inner walls of the middle and upper
terraces

These two examples were but hnks in the great chain of
Mycenaean citadels which dominated the Argive plain — ^Mycenae,
Argos, the Argive Heraeum, Mideia, Asine and Tiryns Apart
from these we find the most imposing remains at Gla, where the
walls are about two miles in circumference The Acropohs of
Athens, withm whose circuit was contained so much of what
was greatest m Greek art, origmally formed another of these
Mycenaean citadels. Discoveries in the district round Athens

GAI.LERY IN THE WALLS AT TIRYNS.

FRAGMENTS OF FA9ADE ABOVE THE DOORWAY OF THE
TOMB OF AGAMEMNON AT MYCENAE.

THE AEGEAN AGE

have revealed rock-cut tombs and tholos tombs, together with
vases and jewellery similar in style to those of the Argohd,
pointing to its occupancy as a civihsed centre at a date between
1500 and 1100 b c , and on the Acropohs itself, on the site of the
Old Temple of Athena destroyed by the Persians, have been found
the remams of a Mycenaean palace, column bases and foundation
walls, while the entire circuit of the Acropohs is enclosed by a
Cyclopean wall of the same date But the Acropohs was a site
continuously occupied and frequently remodelled, and like every
city that has retained her population instead of being suddenly
deserted, has to some extent submerged her earlier history so far
as that was written in stone Thus it has come to pass that we
can read the story of the Mycenaean period, all important m the
evolution of Greek art, chiefly m the buried cities of the Pelopon-
nesus, while m Athens its vestiges are few indeed

Such are the most important of the secular works of the Aegean
peoples In addition, we might consider a few works of pubhc
utihty, bridges such as those near Mycenae and Epidaurus, fountains
such as that below Pirene at Corinth, were it not that such structures
had httle influence on future architectural developments

sK * * *

A noteworthy characteristic of the Aegean civilisation is the
absence of rehgious architecture Traces of the Aegean religions
exist, to be sure ; we have evidence of the worship of a supreme
mother-goddess (Rhea, the mother of Zeus), and perhaps of other
divinities, as well as of pillar worship ; and we also possess con-
siderable illustrative material with regard to the forms of ritual
But this worship seems to have been conducted in rustic shrmes
or in small chapels in the palaces, of little architectural importance ;
the most imposing structures are those represented on gold plaques
from Mycenae and Volo, m a fresco from Tiryns and in the so-called
“ Temple fresco of Cnossus , the last (Plate VII) represents three
shrines, the middle one distyle in-antis and raised above the others,
which have but one column in-antis (a pecuharity which is proved
to be no mere painter's convention by the smgle bases found
in the propylaea at Cnossus and Phaestus) Among larger
structures may be cited the hill-top shrines of Petsofa and Mount
Juktas m Crete, origmally mere open sanctuaries m which the
rocky peak itself was worshipped, later provided with rectangular
buildings resembling the simplest house plans, with an outer

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

and an inner room, and a magazine. Even less important for our
purposes are the cave sanctuaries, such as the Dictaean cave at
Psychro, the Kamares cave on Mount Ida, and the Skoteino cave
above Cnossus *

Rock-cut tombs, memorial caims, barrows, and other forms of
graves are among the most frequent traces of a prehistoric race,
and often the earhest attempts in architectural expression or
sculptural art that have survived And so it is from its tombs,
as weU as from the palaces, that the story of the age of Aegean
culture IS being gradually reconstructed

There are six distmct classes of tombs in the Aegean region
(A) Pit graves were those in which, as to-day, the great majority
were no doubt interred. Those of rectangular plan, hke the
rectangular house, seem to have been at first characteristic of the
islanders. The simplest form was the cist grave, consisting
merely of six slabs of stone or marble, one formmg the floor, four
the walls, and one the cover restmg on the walls ; the whole was
then covered with earth so as to leave no outward indication.
These are found especially in the Cyclades (where they form the
earhest architectural remains) and m Crete. Sometimes the
sides were hned with rubble walls rather than with single slabs ,
and the roof was sometimes of reeds and clay, or of timber, or of
overlapping slabs corbelled toward the centre A development
from these was the shaft grave, sunk much deeper below the surface
(7 to 14 feet), the lower part either hned with rubble walls or
provided with a rock-cut ledge on which the cover slab might
rest. For ease m reopenmg these graves, for subsequent inter-
ments, it was sometimes preferred to place the body, not in the
bottom of the shaft itself, but m a chamber excavated at one side
of the bottom of the shaft, and afterwards closed with a vertical
wall. But such forms were by no means confined to the islands ;
due to island influence, early cist graves occur at Tiryns, shaft
graves with lateral chambers at Corinth, simple shaft graves at
Pylos (Messenia) and, most important of all, on the Acropohs
of Mycenae.

Here the shaft graves, in the period 1650-1450 BC., covered
a large area on the east slope of the hill, outside the older walls ;
six of them, contaimng seventeen bodies (eleven men and six

* The priinitive cave-temple at Delos, sometimes regarded as Aegean,
is more probably primitive Greek.

THE AEGEAN AGE

women) were apparently royal ; the bodies were covered with gold
ornaments and jewelry, and surrounded by all manu pr of arms
and vessels. These graves were cut m the solid rock, in the form
of rectangular shafts sunk from the natural surface of the hiH,
with the result that they are on very different levels ; the floors
were covered with pebbled pavements, the sides lined with batter-
ing walls which supported wooden beams with the ends encased
in bronze, and on these in turn were laid stone slabs, the upper

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

SIX of the most important, those of the kings. The latter weie
protected by a semi-circnlar retaining wall (Fig 10), battering at
about 75 degrees ; and the fortification wall was made to deviate
from the Ime it would normally have followed, making a curve
concentric with the terrace waU, with the result that the graves,
contrary to custom, were now included within the Acropolis.
They now formed a sacred precinct, the slope being terraced up
with earth to form a uniform level, in places 13 feet above the
original level , the old stelae were elevated to this new level Most
important is the surroundmg wall, a slab circle 95 feet in diameter,
the slabs bemg arranged in two concentric circles 4 feet apart,
filled in between with earth, connected by wooden braces, and
covered with cross slabs, thus forming a heavy parapet from
3 to 5 feet in height , at one side, toward the Lion Gate, was left
an entrance 8 feet m width * Such was the sepulchral precinct
which survived through classical times, and was described by
Pausanias in the second century of our era , the Greeks attributed
the graves to Agamemnon and his associates, and these traditions
were accepted by Schhemann ; but now we know that they
antedated the family of Agamemnon by three to four centuries *!■

(B) Rock {or chamber) tombs, of which vast numbers have recently
been excavated, are of greater architectural importance These
tombs are carved out of the solid rock of the hillside, having a short
and narrow passage {dromos), generally horizontal but sometimes
slopmg downward, terminated by an entrance doorway, which
admits to a tomb chamber, usually rectangular but sometimes
of irregular plan. Very often a smaEer rectangular chamber adjoins,
entered from the greater one ; the latter was sometimes provided
with a bench and served as a vestibule, the inner chamber being
idled with bodies The roofs of the chambers might be hewn m
the form of a vault or of a gable roof Instead of actual doors, the
entrances were filled with rubble walls, which had to be taken
down and rebuilt for each interment The enframement of the
doorway, however, might be stuccoed and painted, with stripes,
wave patterns, or a series of rosettes One of the largest of
these tombs was recently excavated at Mycenae, about 20 feet

* The existence of this entrance is one of many indications that the whole
was not, as some have assumed, covered with a tumulus of earth

t The only analogous monuments yet discovered are the circles of stones
huilt round cist graves at Leucas, earlier in date and more primitive m form
than the grave circle at Mycenae,

THE AEGEAN AGE

square and 20 feet in height, with a dromos more than 90 feet
in length.

(C) Tholos tombs, or beehive domed chambers, in general
form very much resemble the rock tombs, though their construction
was usually very different For while they, too, were cut in the
side of a hill, and approached by an open horizontal avenue or
dromos, yet instead of being rock-cut they were lined artificially
with masonry ; and the tomb chamber, instead of being excavated
from the entrance passage, was formed by sinking from above
a well of the desired diameter, within which the pointed dome
was then built up in horizontal courses, which were backed with
earth as they rose The weU was not sunk so deeply but that the
top of the dome projected shghtly above the surface of the ground,
and was therefore covered with a shght artificial tumulus, some-
times even with a low surrounding wall It is notable that this
form reproduces, with the conservatism characteristic of funerary
architecture, the most primitive form of the circular hut. Many
of them, of large dimensions, carefully dressed masonry {breccia),
pecuhar construction, and with highly decorative fa9ades, are
to be classed among the most important remains of the Mycenaean
era Opinion as to their purpose once wavered between that of
treasuries or tombs , but modern research is now satisfied that
their purpose was for interment of the royal dead.

The earliest suggestions of this form of tomb are to be found
in Crete, where, between 2700 and 2000 b c., a few great community
vaults were constructed of small irregular stones carried up in clay
and rubble, probably formmg a dome, the largest 28 feet in
diameter and containing about two hundred bodies * This type
was abandoned only to be revived again on the Greek mainland
by the Achaean mvaders, after 1450 B c. There we fmd a lengthy
series which shows a gradual structural advance. First we have
those in which the construction is rather primitive, the walls of
small pieces of undressed hmestone bedded in clay, the entrances
showing no knowledge of the principle of the triangular relieving
openmg above the lintel, which is of harder limestone ; the walls
of the dromos are sometimes merely excavated m the rock, without
linings Three of the nine tholos tombs at Mycenae, among them

* At Hagia Tnada , others exist at Hagios Onouphnos, Kotimasa, and Siva
near Phaestus There is no actual proof that they were domical, apart
from the heaps of stones which had fallen into the interior.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

the tomb of Aegisthus (about 40 feet in diameter), belong to this
stage, as well as the three at Tnphyhan Pylos, and one at Thoncus
in Attica. The second stage is characterised by the adoption
of more regular architectural lines ; but since the harder material
could not yet be readily cut to such forms, th^ facade formed
a mere screen of hght poros limestone laid up as ashlar masonry,
with the heavier construction behind it. Such a screen was added
m later times to the tomb of Aegisthus, independently of the
older fa 9 ade behmd , and three other tombs at Mycenae, together
with one at the Argive Heraeum, were actually designed with
double faQades, but now bonded together. For the linmg of
the doorway, behmd the poros facade, larger and harder stones
were selected, conglomerate or breccia, dressed as yet without
the aid of the saw , and likewise the hntels, which on account
of their great span could not have been of poros even on the fa9ade,
were of this hard breccia. In these more developed examples
which follow the tomb of Aegisthus we find a new feature, the
triangular relieving opening above the lintels, fiHed with a screen
of hght poros ashlar The interiors were still of rubble except
immediately around the doorway ; and the dromos, hned partly
with rubble and partly with poros ashlar in the earher examples
of this group, were hned wholly with poros ashlar m the later
examples. In the latest of these, the Lion Tomb at Mycenae,
the rubble wall hitherto used for closmg the doorway was replaced
by actual doors, with a stone threshold, placed however practically
flush with the fa9ade as was the case with the earlier rubble walls
In the thud group we see the height of technical skill, all the work,
not only on the fa9ade but also the Hning of the dromos and tholos,
being of hard breccia blocks, frequently of tremendous size, but now
conquered by means of the saw. As in the Lion Tomb, the entrances
were closed by double doors restmg on stone thresholds, but now
set back at the middle of the passage in order to protect them
from the weather To this latest stage, which in workman-
ship IS comparable to the Lion Gate and the latest portions
of the palaces at Mycenae and Tiryns, we may assign the three
other tholos tombs at Mycenae (mcludmg those popularly
assigned to Agamemnon and Clytemnestra) and the great
tomb at Orchomenus. Of these, the largest and most perfect
of the tombs at Mycenae, that which is variously called the
'Xomh of Agamemnon or the “ Treasury gf Atreus,” may

THE AEGEAN AGE

Fig 11 -Plan and Sections op the Tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

be taken as representative of the type, and described in detail
(Fig 11).

The domed part is about 48 feet 6 inches in diameter, and
45 feet 4 inches m extreme height. Directly upon the floor, which
IS formed of rammed clay, is laid, without other foundation, the
lowest course of the masonry. The curve of the pointed dome begms
at the floor and is carried up through thirty-four courses The
dome is not constructed on the arcuated or vault principle ; the
courses simply project one over another, uncemented, until by
the lessening diameter of the concentric circles the top could be
covered by a smgle stone, hollowed on the under side to continue
the curve to a rounded point. The blocks of stone were m plan
square or rectangular, so that there were wide gaps at the back
which were fiUed in with small stones and clay, even in the upper
courses where the stones approached more nearly the shape of
voussoirs The inner face of the masonry appears to have been
dressed down after the construction was complete The masonry
as it exists to-day shows a great number of holes over its entire
surface, those in the upper part being single and containing pms
which apparently fastened rosettes of bronze, while m the third,
fourth, and fifth courses the holes are larger and grouped in pairs,
evidently for securing friezes of metalhc plates, producing on the
whole a stately and impressive mterior * A very similar appearance
was presented by the “ Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenus,
which has been famous since antiquity, Pausanias claiming that
it was not less wonderful than the pyramids ; the upper part of
the dome has now fallen in, but the lower part is of practically
the same dimensions (46 feet in diameter), with the same con-
struction m smoothed masonry, and with the same holes for the
attachment of rosettes above the fifth course that we found in
the Tomb of Agamemnon ” In the “ Tomb of Clytemnestra ''
the masonry of the mterior is not so regular and is composed of
smaller courses, in startlmg contrast with which is the high course
containing the Imtel, earned round hke a belt course (Plate XII).

In two of these examples there is a smaller rectangular chamber
at one side of the tholos and entered from it , the doorway which
appears in the section of the Tomb of Agamemnon ” is that

* From such evidence of metal attachments it is now possible to under-
stand how Homer came to speak of brazen walls and bases, silver columns
and lintels.

PLATE XIV

THE AEGEAN AGE

which leads to the small secondary chamber In this case the
chamber is about 27 feet square and 19 feet high, with a base for a
central pier to support the ceding , the walls were perhaps hned with
alabaster slabs. Far more imposing, however, was the compara-
tively small side chamber at Orchomenus, only 9 feet by 12 feet
4 inches m plan ; the ceilmg was formed by four great slabs of
green schist 16 inches thick, the lower surface carved with a pattern
of rosettes and spirals which was clearly derived from Egypt
(Plate XIII) ; the walls were lined with thin slabs covered with a
similar pattern This chamber at Orchomenus was reconstructed
m 1914. Many of the tholos tombs, however, lack the side chamber,
as in the great "Tomb of Cl 3 d:emnestra " at Mycenae; some-
times as a substitute there were pit graves sunk in the floor of the
tholos, as at Vaphio and the Argive Heraeum ; * or there might
even be a sort of sarcophagus built up in rude masonry at one side
of the tholos, as at Thoncus

The dromos, or entrance passage, by which the remams of the
dead would be conducted to their fmal resting place, is about
21 feet wide and 115 feet long m the " Tomb of Agamemnon "
(Fig 11), 20 feet wide and 125 feet long m the " Tomb of Clytem-
nestra," but only 16 feet 9 inches wide m the " Treasury of Mmyas "
The walls are hned with masonry, rising gradually from the
entrance to the fa 9 ade, where the height is 45 feet in the " Tomb of
Agamemnon/' The top was often fmished with a special coping

This led to a splendid portal, which, in the case of the " Tomb of
Agamemnon," is in even greater degree than the dome itself the
glory of the edifice The present state of this doorway is shown in
Plate XIV ; the facade is 20 feet 8 inches wide and 46 feet high, with a
doorway 18 feet 2 mches m height, varying m width from 9 feet
1 inch (exactly half of the height) at the bottom to 8 feet 1 mch
at the top, with a reveal of 17 feet 6 inches (at the bottom). The
Imtel is composed of two colossal stones, one of them 29 feet 6 inches
in length, 16 feet 6 mches in width, and 3 feet 4 inches in height,
weighing more than 100 tons , above the lintel is the characteristic
relieving opening. Similar treatments and dimensions appear in the
" Tomb of Clytemnestra " and the " Treasury of Minyas." f The

* Two shallow pit graves occur even in the " Tomb of Agamemnon at
Mycenae

t The stones, however, are smaller, the inner hntel at Orchomenus weighing
only 26 tons. '

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

thresholds m each case are composed of two blocks with a wedge be^
tween to thrust them tightly against the side walls Pivot holes m the
thresholds and lintels show that there were double doors The
thresholds and the immediate jambs of the doors were sheathed
with bronze, fastened by bronze nails In the richest tombs the
facades were revetted with slabs of coloured stones, red, green, and
white, mstead of the painted stucco of the rock tombs , and the
doorways were surrounded with architectural enframements of
columns and architrave In the “ Tomb of Clytemnestra '' there
were engaged columns with vertical fluting (thirteen flutes in the
semi-circumference) , part of one shaft remains in place (Plate X),
with a downward taper of J inch in this piece alone , while dressed
surfaces show that m a height of 10^ feet the taper was more than
2J inches The architrave was faced with two projecting courses
of gray stone, the lower carved with disks in low relief, the upper
with spirals , and above this were carved slabs of red porphyry, of
which some fragments exist More detailed information is to be
obtained from the “ Tomb of Agamemnon/' of which the decorative
features are distributed m various museums, at Nauplia near
Mycenae itself, Athens, Berhn, Munich, Carlsruhe, and the British
Museum The immediate enframement of the doorway con-
sists of recedmg fascias cut on the ashlar masonry of the jambs and
on the lintel Outside this, now only the bases of the engaged
columns remain in place, of breccia with a stepped profile The
most important portions of the green alabaster shafts have been
presented by the Marquis of Shgo to the British Museum and are
there set up , another long piece is in the museum at Athens ,
their total height was 20 feet GJ inches, with the capitals, about
12 diameters Their lower diameter is 20J inches, and the upper
22 inches, making the diminution about one-fifteenth, with the
same reversed taper that we saw in the shaft on the Lion Gate and
m that at the " Tomb of Clytemnestra " ;* but mstead of the smooth
shaft of the former, or the simple vertical fluting of the latter, the
surface of each shaft is covered with nine chevron bands of alternate
spiral ornament and plam (shghtly concave) surfaces (Plate X),
perhaps imitated from a metal sheathing apphed to wooden columns.
The capital consists of a neckmg in the form of a cavetto, vertically
fluted, an echmus with the same chevrons that appear on the shaft,

* Durm’s assertions to the contrary weie again based
measurements,

on erroneous

THE AEGEAN AGE

and another cavetto forming the transition to the plam abacus ,
an mcision below the necking was probably mtended for an astragal
of bronze, giving the profile found on the Lion Gate. Above the
capitals were plinths or dies bonded into the wall and projecting
from it , these were probably connected by the band of greenish
stone bke the columns, of which a fragment is in the British Museum
(Plate XIII), resting directly on the architrave of the doorway, the
lower fascia carved with disks to represent beam ends and the upper
fascia carved with spirals, hke the courses still in situ on the " Tomb
of Clytemnestra,'' On the dies rested pilasters which earned up
the hnes of the columns and enframed the upper portion of the
facade, where the details of the arrangement are largely conjectural
Between the pilasters the wall evidently receded to the plane of the
fagade , among the elements of its revetment are two sizes of
red porphyry fnezes carved with the so-called tnglyph motive,
7 inches and 9f to llj mches m height, also bands of rosettes, and
white marble slabs showing a band of spirals along one edge But
the only fragments of which the exact positions can be identified
are those which filled the triangular rehevmg openmg, evidently
set hack shghtly behind the wall plane a small piece of red
porph 5 ny at Athens, carved with two horizontal bands of spirals,
would just fit the apex of this openmg, and a red porphyry slab in
the British Museum (Plate XIII) , carved with a triple band of spirals,
IS cut to fit against the right edge of the opening. It would seem
therefore that the entire triangular panel was filled with rows of
spirals rather than by any such heraldic design as that over
the Lion Gate *

The last phase in the development of the tholos tombs is repre-
sented by the rude example at Menidi m Attica, though its rudeness
may be due merely to its provmcial character The construction

* The restoration by Chipiez, reproduced m the first edition of this work,
IS now, hke Reber’s, impossible It shows the columns with a diminution of
one-sixth and with thirteen chevrons There is no foundation whatever for his
elaborately carved lintel, and he fails to take note of the plain projecting course
crowmng tbe wall (part of which still exists, and can be seen in Plate XIV) , which
was specially provided to protect the ornamental facing below On the other
hand, Chipiez is certainly correct in filling the triangular panel with rows of
spirals Because of the erroneous treatment of this panel, restoring a heraldic
design following the tradition set by Ittar (Lord Elgin’s architect), Donald-
son, Blouet, Adler, and Reber, we must likewise reject the restoration by
Spiers, reproduced in the second edition of this work , the latter restoration,
furthermore, was made before the discovery of the pilasters above the columns,
and so is of value only because of its correct representation of the portion
below the column capitals

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

is of rubble throughout ; its chief interest hes in the fact that
there are four horizontal lintels above the mam Imtel, instead of
the usual triangular relieving opening, though the latter form is
discernible on the interior of the domed chamber.

These tholos tombs were brought by the Achaean mvaders even
into Crete, there reviving a type which had died out six hundred
years previously. At least one of these Cretan tombs, however,
betrays an attempt to reconcile the beehive section with the
rectangular plan; at Isopata, just north of Cnossus, is a royal
tomb approached by a dromos of the usual form, leading however
to a vestibule about 22 feet long, through which m turn is entered
the rectangular tomb chamber, 20 by 26 feet in plan The walls
are of ashlar masonry ; the end walls are vertical, while the side
walls curve inward until the mterval between them could be
covered with a smgle row of slabs, giving the appearance of a
pointed barrel vault. Others of this rectangular type occur at
Damana, Maleme, and Mouliana ; only at the very end of the
Aegean age did the true tholos type reappear in Crete. Just after
the close of the Aegean age this form of tomb became even more
widely spread : Achaean refugees carried it to Asia Minor, where
small examples have been found at Colophon and at Assarlik
m Caria.

(D) Bouse tombs, more specifically imitatmg house types, formed
rather the Cretan counterpart of the tholos tombs These were
built chambers of squared stones, mmiature houses of rectangular
plan, with roofs of reeds and clay, and doorways blocked by slabs
Such were the community tombs of Mochlos, Goumia and
Palaikastro ; at Palaikastro we fmd square buildmgs divided by
partitions mto long narrow compartments ; among the examples
at Mochlos are some with outer and mner rooms, in one case the
mner room bemg placed beside rather than behind the outer one,
because of the rocky slope bdiind, and so givmg a plan like a
maeander pattern.

(E) Terra-cotta coffms and (F) burials in jars are not of sufficient
architectural interest to merit description (G) The tumuh of the
Ukramian invaders of Asia Minor do not really come withm the
Aegean cycle.

In all these tombs it was deemed advisable to surround the
occupant with the necessities and luxuries of life ; but scepticism
as to their practical utility, coupled with regard for the resources

THE AEGEAN AGE

of the hving generation, led to the manufacture of a class of light
gold-leaf ornaments, utensils, and masks, which are the most
prohfic product of these graves, now violated by the hand of man.
In the case of the tholos tombs, however, it is only in the outlying
districts that they are found with their contents intact, as at
Menidi and Thoricus in Attica, at Vaphio near Sparta, and at
Triphyhan Pylos near Olympia. Elsewhere they are usually empty,
with rubble walls filling the doorways, as m that at the Argive
Heraeum, or masking the fagade or formmg a retaining wall at
the beginning of the dromos, as in most of those at Mycenae ;
this careful concealment suggests that they were emptied by the
Mycenaean people themselves. Some may, however, have been
plundered only in later times; they were, at least, open in the
historic period, the “ Treasury of Mmyas ” containing pedestals
and other traces of Hellenistic and Roman times, while a tholos
tomb at Tiiyns contains a Roman oil mill.

at; 4:

How this early civilisation, so far on the right track, and, it
may be, on the way to fresh effort and mitiative, was cut short
and agam scattered by the Donan invasion, to begin its life over
agam, and, m a fuller and larger way, to work out its destiny,
and yet permeate with its artistic mstinct the country from which
it was now expelled, has yet to be considered Five barren centuries
at least elapsed before the conditions favoured what may be called
the reappearance of Achaean, henceforward to be named Ionian
art. The more we dwell on the earliest periods of Greek art, the
more shall we discover what it owed to the Aegean civilisation ;
and it is astomshmg to fmd how many Aegean principles and
motifs have survived. But the chief importance of the Mycenaean
culture to a student of classical architecture is, not that the one
was the direct ancestor of the other — ^for such an mterpretation
is not supported by the most recent discoveries — ^but the light
that it throws on the origms of Greek architecture, as evolved
by kmdred tribes in the same environment, on the basis of
the same fundamental traditions. It enables us to fill out the
hazy background of the pnmitive period of Greek architecture,
to retrace the development of the megaron plan, of the dadoes
and antae of walls, of the inclined jambs of doorways. And even
though we may admit that certam details, the bracket capital,

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

the Doric echinus, the fluting of the shafts, the rosette, the palmette,
and the spiral, seem to have been direct survivals from the Aegean
age, yet it remained for the later Hellene to exercise on them his
refining genius and hand them down ennobled to future generations
In short, Aegean architecture, though earher in date, was a parallel
development, and not the immediate source of Greek architecture ,
the true fountain head lay rather in the earlier northern home
from which came the successive Aryan invaders of Greece.

Chapter II

THE ORIGINS OF GREEK
ARCHITECTURE

The dispersion of the Aegean tribes at about 1100 b c , which
was the beginning of the making of the hving Greece of history,
appears to have been brought about by disturbances in Epirus
and Thessaly, from which regions numerous armed bands invaded
central Greece and the Peloponnesus, drivmg the earlier inhabitants,
lonians, Aeohans, or Achaeans, to Attica and to Asia Minor
The chief motive of this mvasion of southern Greece may safely
be set down to plunder, the great repute of the wealth of Mycenae
and kindred cities sufficiently accounting for the enterprise, which
in many respects presents an analogy with the invasion of Roman
Italy by the northern hordes The '' Return of the Heracleidae
was the fanciful term which the Dorian tribe afterwards gave to
their occupation of southern Greece and subjugation of the real
owners of the soil, assummg, wrongly so far as we can judge, that
their own ancestors had been its origmal inhabitants In overturn-
ing the Achaean civihsation these invaders, bemg by nature rude
and unskilled, interrupted the progress of the arts, and threw
back every development m this direction. But this stoppage was
only temporary : as Perrot finely puts it, it was as if a fire which
blazed brightly in the open had been smothered by a bundle of
damp twigs ; the flame was quenched temporarily, only to burst
forth again more warmly and clearly. So from the minglmg of the
conquered and the conquering races, after a lapse of three or four
centuries, issued the Dorian Greek race of history, which, subse-
quently meetmg agam the Ionian element which meanwhile had
been takmg a different direction, was destined to produce in
Athens the highest results in art which the world has yet witnessed.
It wiU be one of the objects of this chapter to trace the origins of

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

the Dorian type, which characterised the architecture of European
Hellas and the West.

Those whom the Dorians had displaced, the Achaeans, lonians,
and Aeohans, were in part pressed into the central highlands of
Arcadia and the northern edge of the Peloponnesus (where they
soon became subject to Dorian mfluence), or into Attica and
Euboea, but the majority fled across the Aegean Sea to the
Asiatic coasts and islands. Asia Minor, the borderland of Aryan
and Semitic man, the threshold of Asia and the gate of the west,
was then dommated successively by the Hittites and Phrygians,
the star of empire setting ever farther westward ; it was not until
716 B c that Lydia as a kingdom began to play a part But prior
to this time the tribes thrust out of the Peloponnesus and central
Greece had frmged the shore of Asia Minor with their colonies,
seizing the shore land and the islands held of little account by
the powers of the interior. Greek tradition records migrations of
the Aeohans in 1124 and of the lonians in 1044 b c. ; and by the
eighth century Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna, Erythrae, Phocaea,
were already great cities, and were rivalling Tyre and Sidon, whose
civihsation they were so largely to displace. It was m Cyprus
that fugitives from the Peloponnesus came into direct contact
with the Phoenicians, coUaboratmg in the foundation of colonies
on the rums of the Aegean culture. The swift rise of these Ionian
centres is one of the most striking things m the history of the
Aegean ; it was in great measure from them that the fine arts and
philosophy, modified yet mvigorated by fresh contact with the
Oriental types of civilisation, passed back again into European
Hellas

Other bands had turned in the opposite direction , Eretrians of
Euboea estabhshed a half-way station at Corcyra, and from Chalcis
m Euboea went colonists to Cumae in southern Italy as early as
1056 B c , and afterwards to neighbouring sites, Naples, Pompeii,
and Rhegium. There is no mention of the Greeks in Sicily earlier
than about 735 b.c , when Naxos was founded by another Ionian
colony from Chalcis ; others came to Syracuse ; from Cumae was
settled Zancle (Messina), from Naxos spread Catana and Leontmi ;
and lonians predominated in the settlement of Himera even as
late as 648 b c.

A third movement was toward the north, where the Black Sea
was soon frmged with Ionian colonies, sent especially from Miletus

THE ORIGINS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

and Phocaea, while the Euboeans devoted special attention to
Macedonia

Whatever may have been the impulse that brought the Dorians
and the associated tribes into the Peloponnesus, it was land-hunger
doubtless that soon sent them swarmmg out of it From every
part of Greece they followed their fleeing Mycenaean predecessors,
and passed into Crete, the southern Cyclades, Cos, and Rhodes,
and even settled m one or two cities on the Asiatic mainland. A
later wave of Dorian migration, m the last third of the eighth
century, followed the other Ionian remnants who had passed
westward. Dorians of Corinth wrested Corcyra and Syracuse
from the Eretrians and Chalcidians m 734 ; others from Megara
settled Megara Hyblaea in 728 , the Laconians appeared at
Tarentum in 707 , and the Rhodians established Gela in 689 B c
Other colonies in turn hived off from these, the Megarians founding
Selinus in 628, the Syracusans setthng Acrae and Camarina, while
the last of the important colonies was that planted by the Geloans
at Acragas in 681 b c. These Greek colonists of Sicily succeeded
in placmg under subjection the earlier inhabitants of the eastern
part, the Sicels, from whom the island derives its name , and the
Phoenician tradmg posts which had previously occupied this part
of the coast were forced to withdraw to the territory of the Sicans
and Elymians to the west. But the colonists who occupied the
heel of Italy were constantly at war with the inland barbarians,
especially the Illyrian tribes (Calabrians, Messapians, and Japygians).

He )i« 4s

Before considermg the development of Greek religious archi-
tecture, it may be noted that the rehgion was a combmation of
the personification of natural phenomena with that of deified
heroes or ancestor worship. The Mycenaean tribes, especially
the Cretan, seem to have worshipped a supreme goddess (Rhea) ,
and when they went over to Ionia m Asia Mmor, they found that
there, too, the Phrygian rehgion was that of a great goddess,
Cybele, the mother of the gods, the patroness of aU fertihty
But the earhest records of the primitive European Greek religion
point to a worship of Zeus, the supreme god These two behefs
appear to have mmgled, and the number of Greek gods rapidly
multiphed and became legion , they married and begot offspring
mnumerable, and in the different localities the ingenuity of the
priesthood soon determined the special worship of a certain god or

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

gods without regard to the worship of that same god or gods
as practised elsewhere in the Greek world In some such way it came
to pass that the favourite dwelling-place of Zeus was supposed
to be at Olympia, of Hera at Samos and Argos, of Athena at
Athens, and of Apollo at Delos and Delphi, while the Asiatic
mother-goddess was nationahsed as Artemis (Cybele) at Ephesus
and near-by Sardis, and as Aphrodite (Astarte) at Paphos in
Cyprus Zeus, Athena, and Apollo may be instanced as constituting
the greatest triad of the Greek gods, each embodying to the Greek
mmd one of the forces of nature ’ Zeus was ruler of earth and
heaven, the god producing storms, darkness, and ram , Apollo
was the shining one,'* the sun god ; Athena was the queen of
the air, worshipped m a variety of aspects and especially at Athens
as Pallas-Athena, the goddess of wisdom. Then there were Demeter,
the goddess of agriculture , Dionysus, the patron of wme and of
the drama ; Poseidon, the sea-god , Hephaestus the god of fire ,
Hermes, the messenger and herald of the gods. These examples
will be sufficient, for it would be impossible to do more than give
a general idea of the nature of Greek mythology, which was largely
the ideahsation of God's mysterious workings by people who
in spite of, or because of, their healthy animation were full of
sensitive and earnest imagination. Beautiful scenery affected
the Greeks m a religious way, for they were keenly susceptible
to the permanence of spint-hfe in Nature, and to them the
mountain, the water, and the wood were peopled with divmities
If landscape touched them at aU artistically, at least it did not lead
them to pictorial representations, but solely to this personation
and deification Numbers of cults, in addition, were created
out of the admiration for the prowess displayed by heroes of the same
clay as themselves, and, as in modem days, honours were paid
to these deified mortals and pilgrimages were made to their
shrines

The artistic feelmgs of the pious Greeks led them not only to
express the s57mbolic meamng, attributes, history, and achievements
of their countless gods m sculpture, but also to surround their sacred
statues with quantities of votive offermgs of every description —
m this way the buildmgs dedicated to their divinities were
decorated and furnished, and a wide field was opened to the artist
and a magmficent opportumty given to the development of art.
Earth and sea and sky, moimtain rocks and valleys, rivers, groves

THE ORIGINS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

and forests, which the Pantheism of the Greeks personified and
ideahsed, had to be represented m sculptural form. The earher
statues were rude and primitive images (xoana) carved m wood,
and even down to a later day, when the buildings were of marble,
the great chryselephantine images of Zeus, and Athena, and
Poseidon were m wood, albeit overlaid with gold and ivory. The
beautiful material which Naxos, Paros, and Mount Pentelicus
yielded could not, however, long be ignored , and the mtroduction
of hollow-castmg from Egypt opened another field for art As far
back as we can trace the primitive temple, so far we can trace
its accompaniment of votive offerings, marble or bronze statues
of the god, or of the donor who thus dedicated himself symbolically
to its service

It is extremely probable that the earhest covermg provided for
the Greek cult image, or xoanon, was little more than a hut which
served the material purpose of shelter But it was not in the nature
of the Greeks to be satisfied with this, and it was necessary to give
the tabernacle the character and spiritual significance of a god's
house Mere advances in construction do not account for the
development of the shrine , it is of the aspiration of humanity
toward somethmg fulfilling their ideal of a house of God that the
Greek temples speak Buildmg better than they wot of, one
generation joined hands with another in rearing these most splendid
fabrics of m-dwelhng divinity In nothmg more than in religious
buildings does architecture .point out so clearly the pathway of
the spirit, the slow and painful ascent of “ the world's great altar
stairs that lead through darkness unto God

As a rule temples dedicated to gods had the statue looking
eastward toward the rising sun ; and therefore the principal
entrance faced east * ** All the great temples had a vestibule
(pronaos), a large habitation (ceUa or naos) for the idol which
was so placed as to face the entrance, and sometimes a chamber
in the rear used as the treasury of the priesthood, as well as the
rear porch (opisthonaos or opisthodomus, posticum) f enclosed
with gates and used for the same purpose The whole was frequently

* There is no authority for the oft-repeated statement that the temples
of heroes, on the other hand, faced westward

t In the second edition of this work the term “ epmaos ” was used on the
analogy of " pronaos ” , but since this word is not found in any classic
author it seems preferable to retain the recognised ancient term

** opisthodomus/'

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

surrounded by a portico or peristyle, so that it became a peripteral
temple The pronaos and opisthodomus frequently housed images
and votive offerings, servmg the purpose of the treasury, and
were enclosed by metal raihngs and gates The altar, which in
early times stood in the open air, continued to be placed in front
of the temple m the open, while in the interior a small offering
table stood in front of the image. These open air altars (round or
oblong in shape) were built of stone or marble and raised on steps,
and they had appropriate inscriptions and were decked with
flowers It IS possible that in most cases the interior of the temple
was open to privileged persons only, and that the one view which
the people had of the god (except perhaps at festivals) was from
the open doorway, to the east, at sunrise, when the hght would
dimly illuminate the great statue , and one can under such circum-
stances have some idea of the awe and sense of mystery inspired
among them by such a view of the image of Zeus or Athena. On
the occasion of festivals or processions, the excitement of the
moment could be counted on to neutralise the contempt which
greater famihanty with the lifeless symbol might mspire.

It was long, however, before such a complex organism as the
peripteral temple with all its parts, and the formal columnar
orders, came into being The earhest temples of the gods, in all
parts of the Greek world, were merely the houses of men, enlarged
and embellished The gradual evolution from apsidal to rectangular
plans was now repeated The earhest examples were quite without
columns. These first appeared in the interiors (Figs 12 and 16), to
assist in supporting the ceding and roof when the walls were too
far apart to permit the use of simple transverse beams , then
they were repeated on the facade, forming an open portico or
pronaos in-antis The peristyle which was eventually added all
round this simple form of temple may have been suggested by
the desire to give a better protection to the walls of crude brick.
In this way the Greek temple gradually assumed its characteristic
columnar form and embodied the fundamental principle of Greek
architecture, the post-and-lmtel system. With the advent of the
column, it became necessary to evolve the order ; and from the
different manners in which this was accomplished simultaneously,
on the opposite shores of the Aegean Sea, developed the two great
styles of Greek architecture. In the lands occupied by Dorians
the Doric order was the first to make its appearance, and was

THE ORIGINS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

almost exclusively used, while on the coasts occupied by the
lonians and kmdred tribes we do not seem to have Doric buildmgs
until a late period, when they do indeed occasionally appear,
although the Ionic stiU predommates. The Ionic order, using the
well-worn phrase in its widest sense, although placed after the
Doric m our scheme, should not on that account be regarded as
later; we wish to emphasise the fact that its development was
co-extensive in time, and that it was not a form which replaced
the Dorian style Rather, as we shall afterwards see, they may
both have come out of the same root in the soil of Mycenae. Hence
the differmg treatment became not only a symbol of the two
greatest divisions of the Greek race, whose rivalry makes the

Fig 12 — ^The Megaron on the Acropolis at Selinus

history of Greece, but also the happiest and most expressive symbol
we could have, speakmg to us, on the one hand, of the grave, severe,
all-sufficient Spartan, m whom Dorian culture approached its
ideal, and, on the other, of the hghter, more versatile, fnvolous,
and superstitious semi-Asiatic colonist who stands for the' type
of the Ionian race farthest removed from the Dorian

* 4: * ai«

On the Greek mainland, one of the earhest peripteral temples
of which remams have been found sufficient to determine its
approximate restoration is the temple of Apollo at Thermum in
Aetoha (Fig 13), with five columns on the fronts, fifteen columns
on the flanks, and a single row down the centre of the cella in
order to carry the roof. The cella walls were of unburnt bnck.
Only the footings of the columns were of stone , the columns

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

themselves were of wood, and
so, too, was the entablature ,
but of the latter, fortunately,
much of the terra-cotta revet-
ment IS preserved, including the
great painted metopes which
prove that the temple was
Done m style (Plate XV) A
more developed peripteral ex-
ample was the archaic temple
of Hera near Argos, with hexa-
style facades , but of this exists
only the stylobate or con-
tinuous step supporting the
colonnade, important however
on account of the weathered
traces of the wooden columns,
2 feet inches in diameter.

The most notable of all the
early Doric peripteral temples
is the Heraeum at Olympia
(Fig 14, Plate XXIV H). The
date of its foundation was
attributed by Pausanias to the
beginning of the eleventh cen-
tury B c. , but certainly on
fallacious grounds , at that
early epoch no temples were as
yet being erected, and the
Heraeum, furthermore, is the
last of three successive temples
on the same site, so that its
date must have been consider-
ably later than 1096 b c , we
should prefer rather the end of
the seventh century Such a
date is more m harmony with
certain well-developed features

of the plan, in particular the contracted intercolumniation at

the corners, a feature which was still unknown at Thermum,

THE ORIGINS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

and did not make its appearance in the western colonies until
the very end of the sixth century. The general proportions,
however, are still very long, the relative proportion of width to
length being about 2 to 5J, whereas m more developed Greek
temples it was about 3 to 7 ; there are six columns on the front
and sixteen on the sides, and it
stands on a stereobate of only two
steps (the stylobate and one below)
instead of the usual three. The
wide mtercolumniation shows that
the architrave was m wood ; that
the columns were originally in the
same material is suggested, firstly,
by the existence of one oak column
in the rear porch, the opisthodomus,
as related by Pausanias, and,
secondly, by the fact that the
present columns vary considerably
m their diameter and their character
(Plate XV) Some of the shafts are
monohthic, others built of drums ;
and the echinus of the vanous
capitals differs in contour and pro-
jection ; all these facts point to the
conclusion now generally accepted,
that the origmal wooden columns
were replaced gradually by those m
stone The use of wood, however,
was due not so much to the early
date (for at this epoch stone temples
were already bemg erected elsewhere)
as to some pecuhar local tradition
The form of these earher wooden
columns is unfortunately quite unknown.* The walls of the cella

* In the second edition of this work it was suggested that they tapered
downward in accordance with the Mycenaean precedent, and, assuming
that the upper diameter was the same as m the earliest stone column, 3 feet
2 inches, the lower diameter was estimated as about 2 feet 10 inches It was
also suggested that under these columns were stone bases of Mycenaean
type worked on the stylobate , but the latter suggestion, at least, seems
most improbable

to o IQ ao go recT

Fig 14 — The Heraeum
AT Olympia

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

were of great thickness, the base consisting of four narrow
courses of masonry to the height of 3 feet, their exterior face
toward the peristyle being protected by vertical slabs of stone,
following the traditional Greek custom of having this dado
of vertical slabs, known as orthostates, outside the cella walls
{cf, Plate XXXVI), and on this base or socle rested a superstructure
of crude or unburnt mud brick * Here also, as in the Mycenaean
buildings, the ends of the side walls of the pronaos and opisthodomus
were encased with timber in order to carry, m conjunction with
the columns in-antis, the architrave and superstructure , and the
jambs of the doorway leading to the cella were similarly encased.
In the interior of the cella, on either side, was a range of eight
columns to lessen the bearing of the main beams carrying the
horizontal ceihng and the sloping roof over the cella, f in order to
dispense with the support of the crude brick walls These columns
would seem to have been alternately attached by spur walls to
the cella wall to give further strength to the latter The roof
was covered with terra-cotta tiles, with cornice revetments, acrotena
crowning the pediments, and antefixes terminating the cover tiles,
all richly painted m dark colours But, with the exception of these
terra-cottas, nothing of the superstructure of the Heraeum has
come down to us , the entire entablature and roof, as indeed we
deduced from the plan, were of timber construction, and we can
restore their forms only by conjecture. Thus, while the wide
intercolumniation at this early date shows that the architrave
must have been of wood, the closer intercolumniation of the
columns at each angle suggests the presence of a frieze, with
triglyphs and metopes, for the only explanation of such a con-
traction is that it was introduced m order to bring the triglyph to
the corner.

At this point we may terminate our survey of the primitive
Doric or Proto-Doric temples, by calhng attention to some disputed
questions relating to this subject, and the manner in which they
should now be viewed.

* It IS to the latter that we owe the preservation of the statue of Hermes
by Praxiteles, which was found buried in the clay of the disintegrated walls
at the foot of its pedestal

t The existence of a ceihng under the sloping roof is suggested by a story
told by Pausamas, in which he says that when the Eleans were repairing
the dilapidated roof of the Heraeum the corpse of a foot-soldier was found
between the ceihng and the roof."

THE ORIGINS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

(A) We have sufficient evidence to show that the column, in
its earhest stages, was of wood hke those of the Aegean period ,
but whether the shafts were perfectly cylindrical, or tapered
upward or downward, we have as yet no idea.* And, while our
knowledge of the forms of their wooden capitals is equally indefinite,
yet we may reasonably conjecture that they had, hke those of
stone which followed them, the characteristic abacus and echinus,
obviously a derivation from the Aegean type, which must have
been well known to the Dorians through the stone copies on the
Lion Gate (Plate X) and the Tomb of Agamemnon (Plate XI). Per-
haps the cavetto above the echinus was omitted at an early date,
for we see no trace of it m the earhest existing Doric capitals ; the
scotia and astragal below the echinus, on the other hand, survived
until a later period and prove the relationship between such
capitals as those at Paestum (Fig. 25) and their Aegean prototypes.
It has been suggested, however, that the wooden columns of
primitive Greek architecture had no relationship to the Doric
column, and that the latter was imitated rather from certain
EgjTptian stone columns, to which, to be sure, it bears a superficial
resemblance But the heavy proportions of the earhest known
Greek Doric columns of stone, httle more than four diameters
high (Fig 21), and the fact that from the very beginning the echmus
formed an essential feature between the shaft and the abacus,
while the abacus was of much greater width than the upper
diameter of the shaft, raihtate seriously against the theory that
there was any connection between the Greek Doric column and
the so-called " Proto-Doric ” examples at Beni-Hasan or at Karnak
and Der-el-Bahari in Thebes It is hard to find a wider dissem-
blance than exists between the earliest Greek Doric columns and
the Egyptian fluted columns, where the proportion in height
vanes from to 6 diameters, where there is no echmus and where
the abacus slightly, if at all, exceeds the upper diameter of the
shaft, f On the other hand, the well-known timidity of the Greeks

* As stated above, there is no authority for the theory, put forward m the
second edition of this work, that the shafts tapered downward in accordance
with Mycenaean precedent , but it is, of course, quite possible

t There comes a further reflection, that if the Greeks copied one type of
Egyptian column, why should they not have adopted others ? At Beni-
Hasan the lotus capit^ exists in the interior of many tombs, and at Thebes
both the bud and the bell-shaped capitals are found in great profusion, yet
the former never appeared in Greece, while the Greek examples of the bell
type formed an independent movement Furthermore, the so-called " Proto-

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

in stone construction would be enough to account for the sudden
thickening of the proportions when translating from a prototype
hitherto of wood.

(B) The entablatures of these early temples having almost
entirely disappeared, we are forced to trust to a few fragments of
their terra-cotta trimmings (especially those of Thermum), to the
archaic reproductions in stone of what were originally wooden
features, and to the description of the primitive entablature as
given by Vitruvius. And though the same controversy that we
noted in the case of the columns, for an origin in wood or m stone,
is bemg waged also with regard to the entablature, yet we may
unhesitatmgly affirm that the tnglyphs in the frieze reproduce the
ends of beams (Fig 15) or the decorative grooved facing of the ends
of such beams, secured in position by pins or pegs passing through
the projecting taenia or fascia surmounting the architrave, and
through the regula or short strip under the taenia, below each
triglyph; the pins became the trunnels or guttae, still detached
from the architrave m the earlier stone temples, and even sloping
outward (as m temple D at Sehnus). The mutules or projectmg
blocks on the soffit of the cornice are as clearly the ends of the
rafters of the roof, hkewise with pegs or guttae, and all the other
details are easily mterpreted as translations of wood or terra-cotta
members mto stone, the metopes being the terra-cotta facing of the
bnck walls between the triglyph beam ends Whilst the mutules
and their mterspaces always contmued to represent the approximate
slope of the roof in the peristylar temple, the tnglyphs gradually
came to be employed only in a decorative sense, as they did not
correspond to the cross beams of the peristyle ceiling, which were
at a much higher level This, however, was merely the result of
the translation of the entablature into stone , the pnmitive wooden
form was probably quite consistent, the beams coincidmg with the
, and even m later stone architecture we have examples
of such coincidence, as in the eastern portico of the Propylaea of the
Athenian Acropolis (Plate XLVI).

(C) Fmally, with regard to the plan as a whole, we must refer
to the well estabhshed theory that the structure within the peristyle,
that is, the cella and pronaos, is a direct derivation from the
Mycenaean megaron (Plate VIII) So long as the Heraeum at Olympia

Done column ceased to be employed m Egypt after the eighteenth dynasty,
more than six hundred years before the earliest Greek stone columns

CORNER OF THE HERAEUM AT OLYMPIA, WITH REBUILT COLUMNS.

PLATE XVI*

CYPRIOTE STELE (METROPOLITAN

museum).

DOOR JAMB OF TOMB AT
TAMOSSOS, CYPRUS.

PROTO-IONIC CAPITAL FROM LARISSA (CONSTANTINOPLE MUSEUM).

THE ORIGINS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

was our earliest example of primitive Done architecture, such an
explanation was the best method of bridging the gap , but now
that the Heraeum has been assigned rather to the end of the seventh
century, while on the other hand numbers of temples mtermediate
between the Mycenaean megaron and the Olympian Heraeum have
come to Hght, we see that the farther we recede toward the darkness
of the Donan mvasion, the more elemental the plan becomes (Fig 12),
resembling more the pnmitive ancestor of the Mycenaean megaron
(Fig 4) than the developed product The long rectangular plan, the

Fig 15 — Conjectural Reconstruction of Proto-Doric
Entablature (Durm )

use of a socle of rubble masonry (eventually replaced by orthostates
of stone), m order to raise the mud brick walls above the foot-worn
or rain-washed ground, the timber casing of the antae and door
jambs where the mud bnck alone would have been too weak — all
these were merely the logical development of the ideas which the
Donans, hke the Achaeans before them, had brought from their
northern homes. The colonnaded pronaos of the Greek temple,
the most " Mycenaean ” feature, did not appear m Greek archi-
tc cture until long after all memory of the Mycenaean palaces had
died away The house of the Greek god was an independent

THE ARCHITECTURE OE GREECE

growth, related to that of the Mycenaean king only m its common
ancestry.

In order to trace the origins of the other order, the Ionic, we must
change our vantage ground from Europe to Asia, thus following
the footsteps of the Mycenaeans, the Ionian and Aeolian tribes,
whom the migration of the Dorians at about 1100 b c drove out
of the Peloponnesus and part of Central Greece.

The characteristics of the Ionic order are by no means summed
up m the capital, nor even m the column itself , but it is natural
to deal first with the member that has always been regarded as
the index mark of the style. The obviously
reasonable position to take is that not one
cause, but many, contributed to produce
this graceful and ornamental form. Few,
if any, architectural features can be
attributed to one cause alone ; practically
all can be traced back to a combination of
impulses But in the case of the Greek
Ionic capital one fact at least seems plain :
the farther back we go in our study, the
more probable appears the theory of a
wooden origin, the spirals being originally
merely painted or scratched on the
surface of the block which served as a
bracket capital to diminish the span of
the lintels. Such scratched spirals, though
of later date and executed on marble,
have actually been found at Athens {Fig, 39).

It is among the most orientalised of the Hellenes, those of Cyprus,
that we can best trace the various stages of the transformation of
the Egyptian lily capital into that conventional form which we
know as Ionic. For among the Cypriote monuments this form,
with two volutes springing vertically from a triangular base, and
with a palmette filling the angle between the volutes, can be traced
back to the beginning of the iron age, when the island had been for
some centuries under Egyptian domination. Egyptian decorative
capitals frequently represented the papyrus superposed on the
fleur-de-lys ; and it is this type, with the calyx of the lily con-
ventionaUsed in triangular form, and the papyrus stiffened and

Fig 16 — ^The Temple
AT Neandria

THE ORIGINS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

reduced to form a palmette, that we must regard as the source of
the Proto-Ionic capital. In Cyprus, the type seems to have been
confmed to square piers or stelae (such as a sixth century example
in New York, Plate XVI), or to the jambs of doorways (such as
that of a tomb at Tamossos, Plate XVI) ; it was only in Asia
Minor that it was apphed to round shafts.

True examples of Proto-Ionic capitals are found m temples at
Neandria in the Troad (Fig. 17) and at Nape (Kolumdado) in
the island of Lesbos, and also at Mitylene m Lesbos and at Larissa
near Smyrna (Plate XVI). In all these, the spirals of the volute rise
vertically from the shaft and spring outward, the triangle between
the volutes bemg occupied by a
great palmette ; the eyes of the
volutes are often bored through.

Below the volutes, and bmdmg
them together, is a great torus
decorated with leaves, or a group
of smaller mouldmgs ; and below
this agam is a pendant girdle of
overhanging leaves, the serrated
lower edge isolated from the shaft
by means of a ^deep cavetto.

Another example of this lowest
member, apart from those at
Neandna and Lanssa, has been
found at Aegae

By the end of the primitive
period the girdle of pendant leaves,

the lowest member of the Proto-Ionic capital, seems to have been
ehminated, We find it surviving only in the Persian imitations
of Greek work at Persepohs* and Susa, and m a modified form
in the bell capitals of the Aeohc treasuries at Delphi The vertical
volutes, too, outside of Cyprus, survived only m the above-
mentioned Persian imitations and in some fanciful Ionic capitals

Fig 17 — Proto-Ionic Capital
FROM Neandria
(Constantinople Museum )

* The great halls at Persepohs, in which the columns were decorated
with the lomc volutes placed vertically, above the calyx with pendant leaves,
were not built until 520-485 b c , so that these features, which might otherwise
seem to have been the models for the Greek lomc capitals, were m reahty
copied from them The architects of the great halls of Danus and Xerxes,
besides other treasures, would seem to have utihsed also m their design
architectural features imitated from the Greek coast cities

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

of archaic votive offerings , but m Cyprus the vertical volutes
continued to form the characteristic capitals
Already, in these primitive examples, others of the chief
characteristics of the Ionic column have become apparent One
of the most distinctive marks of the Ionic style is the individual
base ; for, while the Done column rose directly from the continuous
stylobate, the more slender Ionic column required a base of its own,
for a greater effect of stability, and it also admitted of a projecting
base because of the wider intercolumniation. Such bases, already
with the characteristic torus, appear in the temple at Nape. The
Ionic shaft appears always to have been very slender, even when
translated from wood to stone Of fluting there is as yet no trace
While we have actual remains of the columns, we have nothing
of the Proto-Iomc entablature, and must, as m the case of the Done
entablature, proceed to derive it from later copies in stone It
is certain that the architrave, instead of having the high face of the
Doric, must always have been triply divided and stepped into
fascias, hke later copies in the tomb and palace of Darius and other
Persian examples, or m the native tombs of western Asia (Plate
XVII, Fig 18) It apparently was built up in several courses of
timbers, each corbelled or projecting forward to secure a widei
bearing for the roof The ends of the square roof timbers, not only m
Asia Minor but also in Persia, were allowed to appear on the ex-
terior, and constituted as dentils one of the most important
decorative characteristics of the Ionian and Persian styles , but they
were gradually reduced in dimensions, and were retained chiefly to
give support to the projectmg comice They represent the ends of
the ceihng joists, and in the original form of the entablature were
laid directly on the architrave, forming the under part of the comice ,
but in the final arrangement, after the introduction of the frieze
(which was not included in the original Ionic entablature) below the
dentils, the actual beams of the ceiling, continuing to rest directly on
the architrave, were far below the dentils which purport to represent
them on the exterior, just as the Doric beams, on the other hand,
were normally above the tnglyphs For the general form of the
Proto-Ionic entablature the clearest impression may be gained from
the tombs of the native Asiatic races, especially the Lycians, re-
flecting the mfluence of the Greek colonists who had settled in their
territory.

THE ORIGINS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

Of the earher kingdoms in Asia Mmor which were bordered by
the Greek colonies, those of Phrygia, Lydia, and Lycia are the
most important so far as their architectural remains, chiefly
sepulchral monuments, are concerned. For our present purposes,
however, the Lydian tombs are of the least importance, because,
of the two classes of which they are composed, the most monumental
examples are of the tumulus form in which there was little to
influence the development of Greek detail, while the rock-cut
tombs are more crudely worked and gave httle opportunity for
refinements of design In Phrygia, on the other hand, the rock-
cut tombs assume greater importance, and some are of special
interest because they repeat the symbol of the Lion Gate at
Mycenae , these rock-cut tombs show it to have been a common
design m these parts, and as the examples discovered are of later
date than those of Mycenae they probably represent the mfluence
of the Ionic immigrants. Another class of Phrygian rock-cut
tombs IS that which has a square front in one plane (such as the
tomb of Midas), decorated with patterns suitable for a woven
fabnc, and beheved to be a remmiscence of the movable tent —
the house of the nomadic tribes There was thus a tendency
in primitive architecture to perpetuate forms which were matured
in phases of life precedmg those of the erection of durable archi-
tectural works

In Lyda we meet with a parallel class of rock-cut tombs, that
of the wooden hut sculptured m the rock, with all its beams and
poles, its mortises and pegs — an mutation so close as to be unmistak-
able It IS from such tombs that we obtain, as noted above, the
best evidence for the form of the Proto-Iomc entablature ;
though m actual date these tombs are by no means all pnmitive,
smce in this inaccessible territory the traditional forms prevailed
until Hellenistic times At Myra, the ancient capital, there is an
imposmg group of these chff dwelhngs of the dead on the mountam
side , and others exist in hundreds in this south-western comer
of Asia Minor, as a rule cut m the sides of chffs Broadly speaking,
there are three types The oldest are those forming direct copies
of framed timber houses, generally havmg horizontal cornices
(Plate XVII). The entablature is composed of the double or triple
fascia of the architrave, representing two or three tiers of beams ,
there is no frieze , the horizontal comice is supported by lound
disks, representing the ends of roof poles or unsquared logs laid

THE ARCHITECTURE OE GREECE

side by side, such as are shown above the piUar of the Lion Gate
at Mycenae , in the onginal hut they earned the flat mud roof,
and in the rock-cut tombs of Lycia they are of the same dimensions
as the original wood beams that they represent. Later wx find
the ends of squared logs occupying this position, and these squared

timber ends were carried over into monumental architecture
in stone retained probably to give support to the projecting
cormce, but reduced in dimensions, and constituting as dentils
one of the most important decorative characteristics of the Ionic
style. The third type of tomb consists of those in whidi the design
was largely influenced by the stone architecture of the neighbouring
Greek cities ; this mfluence is clearly shown m the Lycian Ionic
tombs, the prmcipal examples of which are found at Xanthus,

THE ORIGINS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

Telmessus, M 5 n-a, Pinara, and Antiphellus. In these the front
of the tomb carved in the rock is copied from a portico in-antis
with Ionic colnmns, but with some details reproduced from the
earher wood structures native to the country
Yet a third class of monuments is met with m Lycia, those of
the sarcophagus type, of which two of the best examples are in the
British Museum (Fig. 18) ; and these are not less wooden m their
origin-— at least, so far as regards their upper parts — ^though they
are probably of later date. Some are rock-cut and some are
constructed, but in general they consist of a sarcophagus with a
pointed curvilinear roof, apparently copied from a portable ark
or shrine, the staves or beams for carrymg it being carved in full
relief It rests on a*podium, sometimes double, with the upper
portion carved with a continuous frieze of figures ; a fme example
is the tomb of Payava (375-362 b c ) from Xanthus. The upright
posts and framing, the end pieces fixed by a wood key, the checking
down of the cross beams, the ceihng joists appearing at the sides,
but not at the ends, the plankmg of the roof — every detail represents
wood construction perfectly, and the whole effect is that of a wooden
cover to a sculptured stone sarcophagus ; yet it is all of stone.
It is worth notmg, too, that it seems to represent ship rather
than hut construction , and this not unnaturally, for Lycia fringed
the south coast of Asia Minor, and the Lycians were a sea-faring
people ; a boat turned upside down on the beach might have
suggested the upper part The openmg was doubtless for the
introduction of the body. The rehefs and the inscriptions are of
doubtful mterpretation. Here again is a suggestion of the ongin
of the Greek dentils, and it will be seen how similar m many ways
was the treatment of the comice m the island of Cyprus (Plate
XVI), which hes right off the coast of Lycia, and which combines
m a singular way the charactenstics of Egyptian, Phoenician,
and Lycian art.

Chapter III

THE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

We have outlined in a preceding chapter the story of the
foundation of the Greek states in European Hellas and of their
colonies in the west, and it is now the further development of
these cities, and of their architecture, that we have to discuss,
particularly with reference to the sixth century bc A most
astoundmg feature of this period is the comparative insignificance,
in an architectural sense, of the mother country, as contrasted
with the almost unexampled prosperity of the western colonies.
In many ways they outstnpped the mother country in the race,
and their reactive influence on Greece proper is very clearly
traceable It was much as it is to-day with Europe and Ameiica ,
America, the offshoot of Europe, outrunning the mother countries
in many thmgs, but awakening them by its reactive influence
to fuller hfe, and ennching them with the fruits of its rapid and
bnUiant development. The art of Athens, as we know it, would
have been impossible but for the earher developments of Dorian
Sicily, Magna Graecia, and the Peloponnesus on the one hand,
and of the Ionian cities of Ephesus and Miletus on the other.

Each of the great cities of this time was a separate commonwealth,
and often, though the general tendency was democratic, the power
durmg the sixth century at least was m the hands of kmgs or

tjnrants Not only traditional kingdoms such as Sparta, but
also repubhcan cities such as Athens, Corinth, Syracuse, and
Acragas were under the sway of such men, in whose hands
accumulated the wealth drawn from subject cities within the
sphere of influence of the vanous capitals. The early architectural
monuments were largely the work of these men, structures through
which they strove to show ostentation or to concihate the people
to their rule This tendency prevailed throughout the sixth
century, the archaic period pure and simple. After 600 b.c. we have

PLATE XVII,

RUINS OF TEMPLES ‘ E R,

AT SELINUS,

PLATE XVIII,

ENTABLATURE OF TEMPLE ‘ C ’ AT SELINUS
(PALERMO museum).

THE SO-CALLED BASILICA AT PAESTUM, SHOWING CENTRAL
COLONNADE OF CELLA.

THE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

a period of preparation, a transition toward the culmination
The chief impulses which led to the great constructions of the
early part of the fifth century were due not so much to the pride
of rulers as to pubhc patriotism. The defeat of the Persians
at Marathon m 490 b c., the second series of defeats at Salamis
and Plataea a decade later, simultaneously with the defeat of the
Carthagimans at Hunera, greatly enheartened the Greeks both of
the mainland and of the west ; for in this respect the Persian
and Carthaginian wars were beneficial, m that they aided the
development of race feehng, and led the Greeks of the Sicihan
cities, as well as those of Greece proper, to act together m the face
of a comomn danger as they had never done before Besides
the wealth and mfluence which these victories brought them,
the desire to commemorate these great achievements by monu-
mental buildings and elaborate votive offerings had no small
share in the subsequent artistic developments To these transitional
monuments we shall return later on ; for the present we must
review the earher examples of the Done order and endeavour
to follow their gradual development.

Of the Donan colonies Syracuse was the greatest It was the
largest aty m Sicily or m the whole Greek world, with a population
of 500,000 and a circuit of twenty miles ; and on one occasion
(413 B c ) it shattered the navy and army of Athens, which never
afterwards recovered its former prestige It is here, in the temples
of Apollo and Zeus Olympius, that we fmd some of the earhest
examples of the Doric style m stone. The proportions of the plan
(Figs 19 and 20) show the characteristic extreme length of the early
peristyles , with hexastyle facades, there are seventeen columns
on the flanks In these examples, however, the unusual length
IS partly accounted for by the additional portico two columns
in depth which was added on the mam front Also may be noted
the proportions of the cella, which, m the Olympieum at least,*
IS very narrow compared with its length In both cases stone was
employed for the columns and entablatures, the columns being only
a httle over four diameters high, with monohthic shafts, and the
capitals with a wide-spreadmg abacus above the echmus, so much
so that in the temple of ApoEo they are nearly contiguous (Fig. 21)
These are the earhest known examples of peripteral temples m
* The temple of Apollo has not been completely excavated.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

stone, dating from the very beginning of the sixth century. And
while it IS not easy at first to account for the enonnous diameter
of the columns and their close mter-columniation, if, as is generally
beheved, they were copies of wooden originals, yet it is obvious
that the new circumstances demanded a different treatment ;

Fig 19 — ^The Temple op Fig 20 — ^The Olympieum

Apollo at Syracuse at Syracuse

and the Greeks, who were always timid as to the bearing value of
stone, preferred to err in the direction of excessive strength than
of too httle, and seem at first to have considered that the immense
weight of the entablature required columns set close together,
even, as in the temple of Apollo, less than a diameter apart.*

* In the illustration, the tnglyphs on the front (shown at the left) should
be wider, with those over the intervals between the columns omitted so as
to leave horizontally oblong metopes as on the fiaTiir.

THE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

Next in importance was Selmns. Here we find six hexastyle
temples, known as A” " C/' '' D,” “ 0/' " ER,” and " FS " ;
the magnificent octastyle example '' GT ; and a prostyle temple
B " with a square ceUa, this being of a later date * The plans
of ah these temples are shown in Fig. 22. Those with the single
letters he on the Acropolis ; those with the double letters are on
the plateau about a thousand yards to the north-east. The temples
are all m absolute rum, having been apparently thrown down by

Fig. 21 — Column Spacing in the Temple of Apollo, Syracuse.
(Durm )

earthquakes (Plate XVII) . They were built in limestone from quarries
about seven miles from Sehnus, and the whole of the stonework was
covered with a fine coat of stucco to fill up the crevices of the
aqueous limestone, and to obtam a greater refinement of detail in
the profiles of the mouldings, with a view to the ultimate decoration
with pamtmg ; and in many cases the stucco remains perfect with

* The dedications of these temples bemg in most cases unknown, they are
usually descnbed according to the letters assigned them by Hittorff and
Zanth m their work, Archttecture anttque de la Sicile, or according to those
used by Serradifalco and preferred by Koldewey and Puchstem in their
Gnechischen Tempel in Unteritahen und Stcthen The two senes bemg
respectively A, B, C, D, R, S, T and A, B, C, D, E, F, G (using O for the
temple later discovered on the Acropohs), I have compromised in the manner
indicated in the text.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

the original colouring. Not only, the columns, but also the entabla-
tures and the ceUa walls were now executed in this permanent
material, though with many survivals from the primitive wood
and mud brick construction ; thus the walls, though now made of
coursed ashlar masonry, still have the bottom course in the form
of slightly projecting orthostates two or three times the height of
the upper courses ; and the antae or terminations of the flank
walls, forming responds to the columns in-antis, are thickened in
imitation of the primitive wooden casing of the ends of the walls,
while in the door jambs even the wooden casing itself survived and
remained m use. With the exception of temple O,"' all the
temples were measured and reproduced by Hittorff and Zanth, and
their description constitutes a most valuable record of the extent
to which the Greek temples were enriched by colour , later studies,
of a more scientific character, were those of Koldewey and
Puchstein, and of Hulot and Fougeres *

The earliest example at Selmus is temple “ C,” of about 570 b c ,
hexastyle and with seventeen columns on the flanks, and with the
double colonnade across the front, as in the two temples at Syracuse
The cella is extremely narrow in proportion to its length, and the
pteroma or passage behind the peristyle is very deep, the cella walls
not corresponding as in most hexastyle examples with the line of
the second column from each comer of the facade. On this site
were found the archaic metopes now in the museum at Palermo
(Fig 23 and Plate XVIII), in high relief and extremely vigorous in
execution, but lacking the dignity of the nearly contemporary Ionian
sculptures of the archaic temple of Artemis at Ephesus The relief
which represents a chariot and four horses (quadriga) in front view
IS most remarkable, because the foreshortening was so difficult, and
to give the sculptor more scope this particular metope has been
sunk to nearly twice the depth of the others ; another metope
represents Perseus beheading the Medusa Their chief interest lies in
the fact that they are among the earhest known Greek sculptures
on a large scale, and that it is to such comparatively uncompromising
beginnmgs that we owe the origin of the metope sculptures of the
later Doric temples f On account of the narrowness of the

* See the Bibliography

t The metopes at Sehnus have not, however, the crudity of the stele of
Chrysapha near Sparta, where the sculpture is worked on a series of receding
planes, the face of each plane being kept quite flat

Fig, 22 — Plans of the
Temples at Seunus, Sicily.

The outhne sketches (on left)
indicate the position of the
temples on the Acropolis, and
(on right) those situate in
the plain.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

metopes, the mutules above them are also narrow, alternating
with the wide mutules above the triglyphs, a characteristic feature
of these early cornices. Temple D,” of slightly later date, shows

Fig 23,— Entablature of Temple " C ** at Selinus
Koldewey )

(Restored by

the same great length of the cella as compared with the width, and
the same wide pteroma ; but there are only thirteen columns on
the flanks, the inner row on the fa9ade being omitted and its place

PLATE XIX.

COLUMNS OF THE TEMPLE AT CORINTH.

PLATE XX.

THE TEMPLE OF JUNO LACINIA AT AGRIGENTUM.

THE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

taken by attached round columns instead of antae in the pronaos
Temple FS/' however, still retains the inner row of columns at
the front, with the long narrow inner building and the absence of
the opisthodomus which characterises “ C and '' B” In temple
“ ER,” with fifteen columns on the flanks, the opisthodomus
appears The largest temple, GT,"' measured no less than about
164 feet by 362 feet. The columns are of three periods, on account

Fig. 24 — ^Basilica, Temple of Ceres, and Temple of Poseidon at

Paestum.

of the length of time required for the erection of the temple ;
the lower diameters were successively 9 feet 6 inches and 10 feet
10 inches, while the upper diameters successively increased from
6 feet 3 J inches to 7 feet and then to 7 feet 7 inches ; so that the
height of the columns, 5.61 diameters in the two earlier periods
(from 630 B.c. to the end of the sixth century), was only 4 93
diameters in the later work of the fifth century. The pteroma is
so deep that the flank walls align with the third column from each
cotner of the fagade, making the temple in effect pseudo-dipteral.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

The temple was never completed on account of the subjugation
of the aty by the Carthaginians in 409 B.c
Of the three great temples at Paestum (Poseidonia), the earliest
is the so-called Basihca (Fig. 24A, Plate XVIII) ; the discovery of the
foundations of an immense altar at the east end has led to the
conclusion that it was a temple It had nine columns on the east
and west fronts, with eighteen on the flanks, and a row of eight
columns down the centre of the cella , but the neighbourmg
and similar temple of Demeter (Ceres) is of the ordinary hexastyle
type (Fig 24B). In both cases the capitals differ widely from any
other known examples in the decorative treatment of the neck

Fig 25. — Doric Capital of Basilica, Paestum, with Lotus and
j[_^^RosETTES. (Durm )

or gorge . m both theie is a cavetto sinkmg m the neck, with a
range of leaves projecting forward from it, a Mycenaean inheritance ,
the decoration in rehef on the lower portion of the echinus of
the Basihca (Fig 25) is varied, there being three or four designs,
two of which are Ionian in style, one of them recalling a similar
design of the anthenuon whidi decorated the soffit of the cornice
and the door architrave of the Treasury of the Siphmans at Delphi
(Plate XXIX). The cavetto sinking in the neck of the capital is
found also in the temple of Apollo at Metapontum ; and in aU three
examples there is a remarkable diminution in the upper diameter,
and the curved entasis is more emphasised than that of any other
temples. The prostyle inner columns of the temple of Demeter
were completely Ionic, with bases. The capitals of the antae in
the Basilica at Paestum are also of unusual form, the only parallel

THE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

being those found
in temple “GT''
at Selinus The
architraves of the
three above - men-
tioned temples at
Paestum and
Metapontum
were crowned by
continuous mould-
ings , and m the
temple of Demeter,
where, as was
usually the case
with these archaic
western temples,
the intercolumni-
ation of the two
outer columns on
each face was the
same as that of
the other columns,
a wider metope
was required to
allow the triglyph
to be placed at
the angle (Fig
26) * The most
unusual feature in
these temples is

♦It happens that
all the four angles
of the two fronts axe
gone, and Labrouste
in his restoration
placed a half-metope
at the corner, and the
last tnglyph over the
axis of the angle
column A metope,
however, measuring
3 feet 8 inches instead of 2 feet 9 inches (the average dimension of the
others) was later found, proving that the tnglyph was in its proper
place, VIZ , at the corner

Fig. 26 — ^Temple op Demeter at Paestum
Partly Restored (Koldewey)

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

the coffered cornice of the temple of Demeter, which bends at the
comers to form the raking cornice on the facade, where the
horizontal cornice is omitted. Another temple at Metapontum,
more complete than the temple of ApoUo and much more
developed (though still belonging to the archaic period) is the
so-called Tavole Paladme.

Another pecuhar example showing Ionic mfluence, and this
time erected in Ionian territory, was the temple at Assos m the

Fig 21 — Front of the Temple at Assos
(Restored by Bacon and Qarke )

Troad (Fig. 27) , its date was probably about 640 B c.* The temple
is hexastyle peripteral, with columns 6.22 diameters high ; the
cella IS of great length as compared with its width, and there is no
opisthodomus. Its chief interest hes in the sculptured architrave,
the only known example of so great a departure from precedent.f

* A later date, in the fifth century, has sometiines been suggested, on the
erroneous assumption that the distance from Athens would be enough to
account for its archaic characteristics both m plan and decorative sculpture.

t For a later analogy m an Ionic building, the Nereid Tomb at Xanthus,
see p. 161.

THE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

On the Greek mainland, the earhest peripteral temple of any
importance after the primitive Heraeum at Olympia was the
temple of Apollo at Connth (Fig 28, Plate XIX), erected soon
after the middle of the sixth century * It was built from the first
with columns and entablature of stone, and is one of the oldest
of the developed archaic buildings now existing in European
HeUas ; and this is only natural, for we have reason to believe
that the city was an early centre of
Dorian mfluence, and one which was m
close touch with all the western colonies
Of this temple but seven columns,

23 feet 9^ inches high, now remam, their
shafts bemg monohths, with lower
diameters of 5 feet 8^ inches and
5 feet 5 iiiches ; the relations of diameter
to height were respectively 4 16 and 4 41,
the columns on the flanks bemg more
slender, in accordance with the mainland
custom ; the echinus of the capitals (Plate
XIX) shows a tendency toward greater
stiffness. The temple was originally
hexastyle, with fifteen columns on the
flanks, and presents the unusual feature
of a double ceha, one facmg east, the
other west, again givmg very long pro-
portions in the plan.

On the Acropohs at Athens was rebuilt,
shortly after the erection of the temple at
Connth, the ancient temple of Athena,

With a peristyle of stone (Fig. 51, E) ; it

was destroyed by the Persians m 480 b c , and its materials
were utihsed in rebuildmg the northern wall of the Acropolis.
Meanwhile, on the south side of the Acropolis, had been laid out
the predecessor of the present Parthenon, with a hexastyle plan
instead of the octastyle plan which now exists , m order to give
great prominence to this Older Parthenon, a lofty platform was

* There are of course numerous fragments of stone temples on the main-
land dating from the first half of the sixth century, such as the Doric capital
from Tiryns, with an abacus two and one-thard times as wide as the upper
diameter of the shaft.

1 HE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

Fig 29 — Old
Temple of
Nemesis.
Hhamnus

erected just inside the old Pelasgian fortifications
on the south side This temple too, though
barely begun, was likewise demohshed by the
Persians, and its materials were inserted m the
northern Acropohs waU, while the platform was
eventually utilised for the present Parthenon
Another frustrated attempt was the beginning of
the great Olympieum by the sons of Pisistratus,
abandoned when Hippias was driven mto exile
in 510 B c. ; the colossal platform measured about
134^ by 353J feet on the stylobate On the other

hand, numerous simple distyle in-antis temples were erected at

this time in the neighbourhood of Athens, such as the older

temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus (Fig 29).

Fig 30. — ^The Temple of
Aphaea at Aegina

The temple of Aphaea ut Aegina
is the most perfectly developed
of these late archaic temples in
European HeUas, though it really
belongs to the transitional period,
the beginnmg of the fifth century
(Fig. 30, Plate XX), and the
marble sculptures from the pedi-
ments, ascribed to about 480 b c ,
discovered by Cockerell and Baron
Haller and now in Munich, still
adhere to the conventional expres-
sions of the older style even though
they show a great advance in the
technical perfection of their
execution. The temple itself, still
fairly well preserved, was built in
the limestone of the district,
coated with a thm layer of stucco,
and richly painted ; the pediment
sculptures, and the tiles on the
pediments and eaves, were oi
Panan marble, the other tiles being
of terra-cotta. The existence
within the cella of superposed rows
of columns on each side has led

PLATE XXI

the temple of concord at acragas

IHE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

French archaeologists in particular to assume that the centre
was open to the sky, formmg a hypaethron or opaion But
the pnmary object of such columns was to carry a flat ceilmg
and to assist in supportmg the beams of the roof , for although
there were undoubtedly some exceptional instances of hypaethral
temples, such as the case of the temple of Zeus Olympius at Athens
mentioned by Vitruvius, they were probably extremely rare.
The roof was evidently unbroken throughout its length, though
some of the tiles may have been pierced to admit light to the
roof space, and possibly thence, through framed openings in the
coffered ceiling, to the cella itselt f

We come agam to Sicily and southern Italy, to take up the
later examples, which belong to the period of transition The
city of Acragas (Agrigentum or Girgenti) is one of the most
remarkable examples of the way in which the Greeks availed
themselves of the pecuharities of the site to give grandeur and
emphasis to their temples. The ancient city was about ten miles
in circumference, with two nearly parallel ranges of calcareous hiUs
on the north and south. The higher ridge on the north became
the acropohs, surrounded with walls and crowned with the
principal temple, of which only six columns remain, embedded in the
church of S Maria dei Greci , this acropohs is now the modern town
of Girgenti On the crest of the southern range, which lies parallel
to the seaboard, and for the length of half a mile, are the
remams of five or six temples. Below the two ranges, in the
hoUow and sheltered from the north and north-east winds, stood
the ancient city, now completely lost. It is the magnificent treat-
ment of the southern range which suggests one of the lessons that
we may learn from Greek architecture The Greeks did not think of
cutting down the hills, or even of leveUing the rock which their
architectural work was to crown they rather made the most of
their natural character, and the best of the irregularities they
presented (Plate XX) They wedded art to nature, and so united
their work with the everlasting hills that it seems to be part of the
same design At the eastern, the highest, point of the range is
the temple of Hera Lacinia, raised on a platform to give it greater

* See below, with reference to Olympia and Ba&sae

I Cockerell found at Aegina a block which had the appearance of being
a coping-stone to an opening of some sort, and hence employed it for an
opaion in the roof But it has since been proved that this was part of an
acroterion base at the apex of the pediment

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

prominence. Then follow in succession the temples of Concord,
Heracles (near the base of which is the sea-gate), Zeus Ol5mipius,
Castor and Pollux, and Hephaestus. The city walls facing the
sea were hewn out of the solid rock, with tombs and sepulchral
niches, and a broad terrace set out on the crest, with flights of
steps to the several temples.

The most remarkable temple m size and design is that of Zeus
Olympius, the largest m Sicily, its stylobate measuring about
173 feet by 361 feet, nearly three times the size of the neighbouring
temples of Concord and Hera Lacinia. The temple had seven
columns on the mam fronts, fourteen on the flanks, and is tech-
nically described as heptastyle pseudo-peripteral, that is, a peripteral
temple of which the columns are engaged to the walls of the cella
(Fig. 31). For the order was on so gigantic a scale that the mter-
columniations were filled with screen walls, to assist in supporting
the entablature. The bases given to the columns, which are
suggestive of Ionian mfluence, and the stylobate raised on a base
with four steps below, are all innovations peculiar to this temple,
which IS ]ust as remarkable for the unusual quahties of its design as
for its size. Not all the features have been determined with
certainty, and the exact position of the colossal telamones
(atlantes), male figures used as architectural supports, 27
feet high, is stiU disputed. The fragments of one of these
were collected and put together by Cockerell, who, in
his restoration, assumed that they were raised on the square
piers of the interior of the cella, and carried the timber roof;
but Koldewey, with more probability, placed them on the
external screen walls, to assist in carrying the entablature (Fig 32).

Of the other temples at Acragas, the temple of Heracles is
the most ancient, dating from the last years of the sixth century.
This, as also those of Hera Lacinia (Plate XX), Concord, and Castor
and Pollux, is of the ordinary hexastyle peripteral type The
best preserved is the temple of Concord (Plate XXI) , which was at one
tune converted mto a church by walling up the flank columns and
piercing arches through the flank walls to form aisle arcades,
this is so complete as still to show the cornice running round above
the cella, with a sinking above to receive a flat ceiling, while in the
cross walls of the pronaos and opisthodomus are openings to allow
of a free passage through from one end to the other, the two stone
staircases leading to the same still existing.

THE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

Besides the two
very early examples
at Syracuse, we
must refei to one
later temple, in the
island of Ortygia —
the temple of
Athena, of about
485 B c., which
owes its partial
preservation to the
fact that it has been
converted mto the
cathedral of the
town. As was the
case at Acragas,
the cella now forms
the nave of the
church, and the
cutting of large
arched openings
mto the peristyle
on either flank and
the fillmg of the
intercoiumnSati ons
with walls have
converted the flank
colonnades into
aisles The temple
was hexastyle (Fig.

33), and, measuring
about 72 feet by 180
feet on the stylo-
bate, it has become
a church of fair size,
though its beauty
has been marred by
repeated alterations and the total destruction of its main front.

Of the three temples at Paestum, likewise, one falls into the
later penod now under consideration. This is the largest of

PEET 100

150

Fig, 31.

The Temple of Zeus Olympius at Acragas

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

all those at Paestum, the temple of Poseidon (Neptune), which
IS one of the best preserved of all ancient temples (Fig 24 C,
Plate XXII) The relative proportion of the diameter to
the height of the columns, 1 to 4 29, might seem at first
glance to suggest an earlier date,* but these heavy proportions

- — -r-

‘ ' s r

I I. .

mj.j,r -

■ r '

Fig. 32. — Exterior Order of the Olympieum at Acragas
(Restored by Koldewey )

are due only to the great size of the columns, the diameter being
6 feet 9J inches , and the other details of the temple are
thoroughly developed The cella still retains the double ranges of
superposed columns (Plate XXII), the sole object of which
* The earlier date was preferred m the previous edition of this work.

PLATE XXII

THE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

would appear to have been the support of the ceiling and roof,
as there is no trace of any gallery, and the steps behind the
pronaos led only to the roof

The latest and at the same time the most impressive of these
temples, owing to its isolated position in the hills and its perfect
preservation, is the'one at Segesta, in the north-west of Sicily (Plate

XXIII) It has also other points
of interest m that, never having
been completed, the columns are
in block form, the flutmg not
being worked , also the stones of
the stylobate are only drafted,
retaining their rough surfaces, and
the ancones or bosses by which
the blocks were hoisted still
remain The ceUa, furthermore,
was apparently never built (Plate
XXIII) , and this fact not only
shows the complete mdependence
of the peristyle, but suggests that
m these peripteral temples the
first part executed was not the
cella, but the peristyle The
temple dates from the last half
of the fifth century, and the
cause of its incompletion was
evidently the stagnation resulting
from the subjugation of the island
by the Carthaginians m 409 b.c.

Very different in plan from the
ordinary Greek temple was the
type erected at Eleusis in honour
of Demeter ; for^this was rather
a HaU of the Mysteries, a hall of

fq 0 ip 20 30 y 50 eo FEEr
Fig 33. — Temple of Athena

AT Syracuse

initiation, than an ordinary temple mtended to serve as the
dwelling of a divinity This type, therefore, was always square
in plan, with its roof supported internally by a forest of columns,*
recalhng an Egyptian hypostyle hall The excavations undertaken
by the Greek Archaeological Society in 1882 revealed the
existence of two successive archaic halls on this site, the second

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

and larger of these (though only a quarter of the size of the
great structure designed by Ictinus in the Periclean period)
having been destroyed by Xerxes

]|t 4c ♦ sH

Up to the present our references to the temples have treated
them as isolated buildings irrespective of their surroimding
dependencies and enclosures, and as a rule the earliest modern
travellers likewise confined their researches and descnptions
to the particular temple they had sought for and discovered.
But the most important temples of Greece were invariably
surrounded by a wall forming a sacred enclosure or temenos
(hieron), in which the principal shrine and other subsidiary
buildings connected with it were erected. In some cases, as on
the Acropohs at Athens, an entire rocky hill was girdled with walls and
formed the sacred enclosure (Fig. 51, Plate XLV) ; m other cases, as
at Olympia (Plate XXIV), where the site was a fertile valley, or as at
Delphi, on the slope of a great hill (Plate XXV), an area of arbitrary
shape was laid out and enclosed These precincts contained not
only the great temple of the presiding deity, and minor temples
dedicated to other deities, but treasuries erected by various cities
to contam their offerings and the regalia of their processions ;
also, stoas or covered colonnades, on the walls of which were painted
various episodes in the history of the country, m 3 d:hological or
otherwise , altars ; and votive columns and statues, set up in
memory of victors in the games, of heroes, or of munificent donors
In addition, the enclosures were often planted with trees and sacred
groves, and provided with colonnades and exedras (semi-circular
seats or shallow walled recesses) given by wealthy devotees.

The discovery of these accessories has been brought about
owing to the great change made in the method of research during
the last fifty years. The sites of the great shrines, m which
the chief temples alone had hitherto formed the objects of
mvestigation, are now in many cases completely excavated, and
the supermcumbent earth removed to a distance. By this system
not only have new features been discovered in the plans of the
temples themselves, which had escaped the attention of earlier
explorers, but the foundations and the remains of numerous mmor
structures have been found, addmg considerably to our knowledge.
In fact, the discovery of the treasUrifes alone may bte said to have

THE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

added a new chapter to the history of architecture. The con-
jectural restorations of Olympia, Epidaunis, Delphi, Delos, and
Eleusis, made by some of the " Grand Prix ** students and based
on the actual foundations and on the architectural remains, so
far as the buildings are concerned, and supplemented by the
addition of the groves of sacred trees with which the sanctuaries
were planted, have suggested a magnificence, a combination
of nature and art, which it is now difficult to realise to its fullest
extent, and of which the only parallel is to be found in some of the

Fig 34. — ^Terra-cotta Facing of Cornices, Trbasurv of Gela at
Olympia (Colours • Light yellow, red, and black.;

Buddhist sanctuaries in India, Cliina, and Japan, where, in
consequence of a somewhat similar cult, temples, tombs, and other
monuments exist up to the present day.

The researches of explorers on all these sites have been greatly
facihtated by the writings of Pausanias, who may be looked upon
as the Baedeker or “ Murray of ancient Greece, and with
whose description it has been possible to walk through the sacred
precmcts and to locate the prmcipal monuments, giving them
their true names and dates — a course which has been made easier
by the discovery of numerous mscriptions on aU the sites. In
some cases, and particularly at Ol3mipia, the inhabitants during

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

the Byzantine period had utilised the remains as mateiials for the
building of fortification walls and other late structures , and
in removing these walls a great number of valuable ancient fragments
were recovered, many of which the excavators were able to assign
with certitude to buildings m the precinct.

Akin to the temples, and situated within the sacred enclosure of
the Altis of Olympia, were buildmgs known as Treasuries, which
were built by the various cities taking part m
jfjk the Olympic games, for the reception of their
offerings, arms, and other properties Similar
treasuries existed at Delphi, Delos, and other
sacred shrines to which pilgrimages were made.
The plans of twelve of these treasuries have
been laid bare at Olympia, on a terrace at the
foot of Mount Cronus (Plate XXIV, I-XII)
These buildmgs consist of a chamber about 16
to 20 feet square, preceded by a portico m-antis ,
and all of those at Olympia are of the Doric
, \ order One of the treasuries, that of Gela (Plate

I \ XXIV, XII), is of more imposing size than

j\.j usual, the chamber measures about 42 feet by

,/ U 35 feet, and at a later date a hexastyie portico

- added to it. Although but few remains of

this structure were found on the spot, numerous
blocks of the cormce and pediments discovered
dA in the Byzantine walls round the site have been

Fig 36 proved to belong to the building, and in these
blocks of masonry were found nails which
Antiphanes showed that they were protected or sheathed
with terra-cotta slabs And of the slabs them-
selves numerous bright-coloured examples were
found (Fig. 34) , evidence of various kinds has shown that this
treasury was built by Sicilian architects and that the terra-

cottas themselves were imported from Gela in the south of
Sicily The protection of timber roofs by terra-cotta plaques
was universal in Greece, but this is one of the few instances in
which the tradition was extended to the sheathing of stone
The date of this treasury has been assumed by Dorpfeld to
be the first half of the sixth century, the portico having been
added a century^ later

THE PRECINCT OF APOLLO AT DELPHI (RESTORED BY R. H. SMYTHE

THE RISE OF THE DORIC STYLE

Much more developed, and typical of the Doric treasuries of
the end of the archaic period, is the marble treasury of the
Athenians at Delphi, rebuilt at the cost of the city of Athens
in 1903-1906 (Plate XXVI). In this we see the final form,
distyle in-antis, the capitals showing the stiff echinus of the
period ]ust before 500 b c , and the metopes of the entablature aU
carved m rehef, while each pediment likewise contained sculpture
fiUmg the tympanum or recess enclosed withm the triangular
frame, besides the acroteria crowning the three angles
Among the smaller monuments, votive, commemorative, and
sepulchral, we may refer here merely to the typical archaic Attic
grave stele or upright tombstone, crowned with a severe palmette
springing from volutes, and the surface of the stele either carved
in rehef or painted, as on that of the monument of Antiphanes
(Fig 35)

Chapter IV

THE RISE OF THE IONIC STYLE

A SLIGHT sketch of the history of Asia Minor during the archaic
period may help us in understandmg the relationship of the kmgdoms
and colonies whose architectural expression, as distmct from that
of the Greek mainland and the western colonies, forms our present
subject We have traced the story of the foundation of the Ionian
colonies by the fleeing remnants of the Mycenaean populations,
of their early contacts with the native peoples of Phrygia, Mysia,
Lydia, and Lycia, and of the colonies which they in turn, as they
mcreased in power, sent off to other parts of the Greek world.
The result of this dispersion is that our knowledge of the Ionic
style has to be gathered, not only from the great cities of Asia
Minor, but also from trading colonies such as Naucratis m Egypt
(probably dating from early in the seventh century, but subsequently
enlarged by Aahmes II, 569-526 b c ), and from outposts established
to receive surplus populations, such as Locri Epizephyrn in southern
Italy and Massilia (Marseilles) in France

Like the Dorian cities, the wealthy Ionian cities became in this
period the prey of tyrants ” , merchant princes or captains of
industry assumed dictatorial power, and to their love of display
we owe some of the most important monuments of the time.
Ephesus, “ the first city of Asia," may be taken as the type One
of the earhest of the Ionian settlements, it came to be the leader
of the confederacy, and was famous for its poets and philosophers,
while it possessed great schools of architecture, sculpture, painting,
and metal work. Another important centre was the island of Samos,
which had a famous school of statuary, to which is accorded the
invention of casting m metal The influence of these cities upon
the interior of Asia seems to have been of little account for some
centuries ‘ it was the narrow strip of shore that was magnetised by
the greater mass of the interior, and the Achaeans parted with
many of their characteristics under the new conditions. Lydia's

THE RISE OF THE IONIC STYLE

greatest period, about 660 b c , is connected with the name of its
kmg, Croesus, who tried to ally himself with the Ionian confedera-
tion, but neither party was ripe for such a conjunction of aims and
resources. For want of this united front the district was conquered
(in 646 B c ) and Sardis captured by Persia, closing the history of
the native kmgdoms for two hundred years Yet the fringe* of Greek
cities retained many of their privileges and still prospered The
proverbial jealousy, and consequent disunion, of the Greeks was
the necessary weakness of their independent polity , and even in
the Ionian revolt of the beginning of the fifth century, these Asiatic
Greeks failed to meet the Persians as a compact and united force,
while the rivalry of Miletus and Samos soon afterwards handed
them a prey to Darius. It was left to their hardier European
kmsmen to throw back the wave of Persian aggression at Marathon
and Salamis. And it was as a direct result of the battle of Salamis
that the Ionian cities were mduced to form a part of the Empire
League of Athens, and so, throughout the fifth century, temporarily
lost their power of mdependent artistic expression and were
subordmated to the leader of the hegemony.

With some shght idea before us of the racial, historic, and
social relationships of the Ionian Greeks, we may now turn to the
more technical side of the development of the material fabric.

sK 4: if: 4c

The most typical of the archaic Ionic temples was the one
dedicated to Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus, of which some traces
were found by Wood under the temple of the fourth century later
to be described, the whole being thoroughly re-examined by a
British Museum expedition in 1906 This temple, known as the
Croesus temple because some of the columns were erected at the
expense of that Lydian monarch between 660 and 546 b c , and
in fact bear his name on the bases (Fig 36), was found to have been
built over the site of three earher but much smaher examples
It was burnt in 356 B c , according to tradition, on the night of
Alexander’s birth, and was rebuilt at a level 9 feet higher, but
exactly on the same plan ; and it is partly with the assistance
of this later plan,* combmed with the traces of the Croesus structure,
that the plan of the latter has to be reconstituted (Fig. 64). It
was, therefore, dipteral e , with a double peristyle of columns
all round), the lonians showing a desire for magnificence which

* See p 141,

100

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

in Sicily was expressed ty the double colonnade across the fa9ade
alone , hence, with double colonnades along the flanks, the west
(mam) fagade was made octastyle, the rear fa 9 ade enneastyle
(with nme columns), and on each flank were twenty-one columns.

Pjq JJ0 / Cmnar Watt, del

The Ionic bases have in this example assumed the characteristic
Asiatic form, consisting of a large torus elevated on a horizontally
fluted disk , the details of the profiles are extremely varied Some
of the toius mouldings are carved with pendant leaves, the heart
and dart Above these bases, in some of the columns, were sculp-
tured lower drums , one of these has been put together with its
archaic sculpture, in the British Museum (Fig 36), and it shows
that the later Ephesian temple derived from the earlier or archaic
one the idea of sculptured drums for its columns This is a

THE RISE OF THE IONIC STYLE

101

peculiarity confined to Ephesus, as far as is known The shafts
otherwise contain forty, forty-four, or even forty-eight very
shallow flutes, spaced so closely that, as in other early examples
of the Ionic column, there were no fillets between the flutes, but
merely sharp edges or arrises as in the Doric order The total
height of these early columns at Ephesus, according to Vitruvius
and Phny, was eight diameters , though the diameters vary so
considerably, together with the variant spacings on the different
sides of the temple, that it is difficult to select the one which
should be used as the basis of calculation In any case, it is obvious
that the Ionic shaft had from the very beginning a proportion
widely different from that of its step-sister the Doric Its work
was less , the whole design of the Ionic temple was lighter and
more dehcate, particularly the entablature which it had to carry ,
and it may be accepted as a principle of these early architects
that the strength of the columns was determined by what they
had to carry In this way it came about that the Ionic column
assumed a proportion of eight or nine diameters in height, while
the Done amounted to four or five only , in proportion to the
weight of their respective entablatures there was, however, no
great disparity of strength or efficiency
When we come to what has always been regarded as the index
mark of the style, the capital, it is apparent that by the time the
temple at Ephesus was constructed a marked change had trans-
formed the order The volutes, instead of sprmgmg vertically
from the shaft as in the Proto-Ionic examples, now he horizontally,
and are connected by the cushion, and below them the girdle of
hanging leaves has become the egg and tongue, the echmus The
illustration of the capital from Ephesus now restored m the British
Museum (Plate XXVII) shows the undeveloped nature of the spiral
band of the volute (convex rather than concave as later, with a single
separating astragal, and no central eye), of the palmette ornament
which fiUs the triangular gap between the cushion and the echmus,
and of the carved egg and tongue itself Only the bead below the
echinus is carved on the topmost drum of the shaft, the echmus
and the volute cushion being carved together in the same block ,
on the bolster side the echinus is partially sunk in the cushion
of the volute, only the lower portion remaining visible The echinus
still shows the traces of its origin in the convex girdle of overhanging
leaves, in that the upper portion recedes and is cut off horizontally

102

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

at the top But the most remarkable feature is the great length
and narrowness of the thin slab forming the abacus at Ephesus,
an oblong almost twice its length, instead of the nearly square
form to which the later examples have accustomed us, and profiled
as a cyma reversa, carved with the leaf and dart The effect is
that of a bracket-capital intended to lessen the bearing of the
architrave between the columns, and the side elevation of the
capital has little of the cushion or bolster shape which it afterwards
assumed. Some of the capitals on the main fa 9 ade were particularly
ornate, with rosettes covermg the volutes (Fig 27).

The chief defect of the Ionic order hes in the angle capital,
which, owing to the necessity for making the volutes face in two
directions, loses its structural significance and individual beauty
The capital seems to have been designed rather for interiors and
for porticoes in-antis But its use in a peristyle or a peripteral
building, such as the temple at Ephesus, immediately led to
difficulties. With a single round column at the angle, no other
solution was possible than to bend angle-wise in plan the volutes
which meet at the external comer ; m other words, to umte and
turn aside the useless parts of the bracket {cf Fig 47) On account
of the tremendous length and comparative narrowness of the
capitals at Ephesus, it would seem that at the inner comers, where
the two volute faces intersect each other, the complete curve of
each volute must have been preserved,* mstead of being cut in
halves as in later examples

Of the entablature at Ephesus only the slightest traces are pre-
served There is nothmg of the architrave, probably triply divided
and stepped, which was so colossal that the mechanical difficulties
of its transportation and erection (the central span on the west
being 28 feet 8 mches) caused great distress to its designers,
Chersiphron and Metagenes. We have only a few fragments of
the cornice, and of the colossal marble sima or gutter m the form
of a parapet, 2 feet 10 inches in height, which edged the roof,
inclined shghtly forward and carved with figures in low relief,
so that it formed a zoophorus, with outlets for rain-water at intervals
in the form of lion heads. Up to this level the entire structure,
in contrast to the Doric temples of the west, was constructed in
marble. But the great tiles with which the roof was covered, and

* This IS shown m Henderson’s restoration in the British Museum
publication

PLATE XXVII.

CAPITAL FROM THE ARCHAIC TEMPLE AT EPHESUS
(BRITISH museum).

CAPITAL FROM THE ARCHAIC TEMPLE AT EPHESUS,
(BRITISH museum).

PLATE xxviir.

NAXIAN VOTIVE COLUMN AT DELPHI.

tHE RISE OF THE IONIC STYLE lOS

of which many fragments were found m 1905 in the pockets of
the foundations of the later temple, were of terra-cotta for the
sake of hghtness of construction,* smce they were earned upon
wooden beams and rafters.

Other examples of the archaic Ionic style are far more frag-
mentary At Miletus, or rather at Didyma (Branchidae) near by,
there was an early temple on the site of the great structure later
to be described , but this temple was burnt by Darius, and after
a partial restoration was completely destroyed by Xerxes, so
that its only rehes are the archaic seated figures, some of which
are in the British Museum, that onginaHy bordered the sacred
way leading up to it. And at Naucratis in Egypt, a daughter city

Fig 37 — Capital from the Temple of Apollo at Naucratis

of Miletus, was found by Prof Flinders Petrie one of the earhest
known examples of the archaic Ionic capital , the date probably
goes back to about 669 B c , when Aahmes (Amasis) II ahied
himself with the Greeks and gave them special religious and
commercial privileges In this case the volute cushion was carved
separately, and is now missing, though a fragment of it was seen
by the excavators ; a restoration is suggested m Fig 37. The
echinus, carved on the topmost drum of the shaft, is even more
primitive than that at Ephesus, the egg and tongue clearly showing
its origin in the overhangmg leaves of some plant , the eggs are
carved even on the upper surface of the echinus and die mto the
horizontal bed which carried the volute cushion. It would seem
that this egg and tongue, which is m effect the crowning feature

* It was at this period, however, that tiles of stone were first made by
Byzes, a Naxian" (Pausanias, V, 10, 3), and such Naxian marble tiles are
known

104

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

of the shaft, must have been largely visible even under the bolster
side of the volute cushion Below the echinus a smooth astragal,
or in some cases a beaded astragal, was earned round the top of
the shaft The capital found at Naucratis is interesting also in
other ways , the upper part of the shaft is slightly bell-shaped,
inci easing in diameter as it rises, and is decorated with a necking
of the lotus flower and bud, which may have been the prototype
of the well-known anthemion or honeysuckle, such as was used
on the columns of the Erechtheum. The shaft has the
numerous shallow flutes with sharp arrises between, terminating
below the necking with shghtly projecting lips like overhanging
leaves or petals, a treatment similar to that recurring in a
much later example — viz , in the capital of the monument of
Lysicrates

Shghtly more developed was the colossal temple at Samos, of
which the remains have recently been excavated, showing that
It was dipteral as at Ephesus, with eight columns on the mam
fagade and nine columns on the rear, and twenty-four on either
flank Here again the volute cushion and the echmus
moulding are carved out of different blocks, the latter bemg in
fact the crowning moulding of the shaft, and carved out of the
upper drum of the same The volutes show the same
treatment with the convex “ canal '' and the simple separating
astragal that we observed at Ephesus In a few instances, probably
on the facade, a carved necking appeared below the capitals, as
at Naucratis But the shafts reveal a new development m the
columns which are finished, the flutes have become deeper, and
so, with the deeper cutting, they could not so well retain the sharp
arrises of the earher examples, with the result that a narrow fillet
of the rounded surface of the column was preserved between the
flutes, concave and very shghtly convex surfaces contrasting
over the whole of the shaft Likewise on account of the deeper
cuttmg and the space required for the fillets, the number of flutes
was reduced to the normal figure, twenty-four Similar
characteristics, with the carved necking and the twenty-four deep
flutes with fillets between, occur in another peripteral Ionic temple
as far afield as Locn Epizephyni in southern Italy (Fig 38), an
mstance of the Ionic mvasion of the west, counterbalancmg the
Doric temple at Assos m Asia Minor

THE RISE OF THE IONIC STYLE

105

In the form of smaller monuments, as distinct from temples,
the Ionic style freely penetrated into districts which in rehgious
architecture were more strictly devoted to the Doric style. This
was particularly true at Athens, where Pisistratus and his sons
were closely affiliated with the Ionic tyrants, and at Delphi, where
the Ionic states in common with others dedicated offenngs
Some of the archaic votive capitals discovered at Athens, and
now in the Museum of the Acropohs, and others at Delos, still

Fig 38 — Details of Capitals from Locri (Durm )

retain reminiscences of the Proto-Ionic type, with vertical volutes,
or even horizontal volutes as yet not connected , and m technique
some are merely masses or blocks with the spirals traced or painted
on, m what must have been the primitive manner (Fig 39) Two
of them have the egg and tongue deeply undercut, with a cavetto
which recalls the original form of the pendant leaves , it is in such
examples as these that we find the first transition from the

106

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

overhanging leaves A similar form, with the cavetto instead of the
bead which usually runs under the echinus moulding, occurs in
the capital of the Naxian votive column at Delphi (Plate XXVIII) ;
and here the shaft stiU shows the forty-four shallow flutes with
sharp arrises between, m the earlier manner, though the " canal ”
of the volute is now concave rather than convex
Even in buildings we find instances of this penetration of the

Ionic style, as in the
archaic Colonnade of
the Athenians at
Delphi, built against
the raised terrace of
the temple of Apollo
But the most famous
instance is one of
several marble Ionic
treasunes discovered
by the French at
Delphi, the Treasury of
theSiphnians,* erected
at about 525 b.c ;
although of small
dimensions, only 20
by 28 feet on the
stylobate, it is one of
the most richly decor-
ated of such buildings
that ever existed (Plate
XXIX) The vestibule
consisted of a portico
in which
Caryatid figures (or
maidens, as the Greeks first called them) raised on pedestals, and
carrying a polos with a projecting capital of singular design, took the
place of columns, formmg prototypes of the much more developed
Caryatids of the Erechtheum The whole was built of Panan marble,
and biiUiantly coloured ; vivid traces of colour existed in the frag-
ments found, and the elaboration and carving of the mouldings are
equal to those of the Erechtheum at Athens, which it precedes by
* Formerly misnamed Treasury of the Cnidians

Fig 39— Votive Capitals prom Athens and . o-nfie
Delos. (Restored by Chipiez )

THE RISE OF THE IONIC STYLE

107

fully a century The enrichment of the mouldings of the entablature
and pediments, and the anthemion designs round the architrave
of the doorway, on the soffit of the comice and on the sima
(Plate XXVIII) are thoroughly Ionian in style. The frieze, or zoo-
phorus, 2 feet 1 inch in height, was ennched with sculpture in high
rehef, painted in red, blue and green, the effect being heightened by
bronze spears, wheels of chariots, and bronze harness fastened to the
marble In the pediments were groups of figures of less size, the
upper portions of which were carved in the round and detached from
the tympanum at the back A second of these Delphian treasuries,
that of the Cnidians, likewise had Caryatid figures but was much
less ornately decorated And two other marble Ionic (or Aeohc)
treasuries of this epoch had columns with Ionic bases and shafts, but
with pecuhar basket capitals of which one example (Plate XXVI),
from the Treasury of the Massihotes, had been sketched at Delphi
by so early a traveller as Cockerell

sic « « :is

Such was the artistic expression of that phase of culture known as
Archaic Ionic, of which the details from the early temple of Artemis
at Ephesus give the best idea It was at this early period that the
structural development of the style was completed , the genius of
subsequent architects through centuries was altogether directed to
a refmmg and modifying process, to a close study of every possible
elegance and pohsh consistent with quiet and sound taste, to the
obhteration of every crude hne, harsh angle, or unseemly form
In such ways they reached the perfection of the temple of Athena
Nike and the Propylaea, which were not so much the works of
their particular architects as the matured fruit of a succession of
harvests * the result, as we see now, of the dispersion to Asia, of
the atmosphere which the Asiatic colonist breathed, and of the
archaic temples to the mother-goddess of the Phrygian people,
whether m the guise of Artemis or of Cybele Yet who would
affirm that the Greeks were automatons working out unconsciously
a hne of development, followmg blindly a predestined course ^
If ever architects thought or planned or designed with true
onginahty, they were the Greeks But it was the conservatism, the
traditionahsm, of the style which, after its constructive form was
fixed, gave us the masterpieces of the culmination in Athens.

Chapter V

THE CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND THE
PELOPONNESUS

As we have already pointed out in a preceding chapter, during
the period described as Archaic the structural development of the
styles was completed, no great constructive improvements showing
themselves after about 500 b c The next two centuries would
seem to have been directed chiefly to the beautifying and refining
of the constructive features already prescribed and it was in fact
a conservative adherence to the older type, and a traditional respect
for previous result, which led them ultimately to the production
of such masterpieces as the Parthenon, the Propylaea, and the
Erechtheum, the perfection of which would have been impossible
but for the careful and logical progression of the preceding centuries

It has been said that behind and beyond any cause that we can
specify for a development in art and in civilisation itself there is an
economic one , and this theory may be apphed to the culmination
of Greek art That a great period in art production should arise,
there must be a certain over-production and accumulation of
wealth, which may be said to find an outlet in the various channels
which architecture and art supply According to this view of it,
we may trace the Egyptian monuments back to the wealth of the
Pharaohs, the architecture of Rome to the spoil of the world, and
in like manner find an explanation in an economic sense of the
central period of Greek art, the age of Pericles The wars with
Persia had enriched Greece, and the naval supremacy of Athens,
displayed most of all m the battle of Salamis, had raised her to a
position of the greatest influence among the Greek cities so that
when the Persians were driven out of Greece, many of the islands
and the coast cities of Thrace and Asia Mmor effected an alliance,
with Athens at their head, permanently to keep the Persians out of all
Greek lands. Athens, gradually assuming greater authonty.
practically came to treat them as subject cities, even exacting

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 109

tribute , and thus riches, talent, and power passed from them into
the capital of the hegemony. It was about this time that she, under
the leadership of Pericles, took the greatest and proudest place
among great cities, built her most beautiful temples, and brought
forth her greatest artists , and it is the artistic work of this period,
which in its beauty reaches its culminating point of perfection
together with all else that was greatest in its history, that we have
now to study

Yet the wonders of the Penclean age would have been impossible
but for the long line of Greek artistic tradition, which had been
preparing the way not only in Greece but also in Asia Minor
The reflex action of these Ionian cities upon Greece proper can
hardly be overestimated, in considering all the causes of the
culmmation For, as has been already observed, Athens was an
Ionian city from early days, and was influenced largely by, and
had much commerce with, her compatriots in Asia Minor But
besides this domestic influence, there was at work one of almost
equal power, namely, the development of Done pnnciples and
manners m the Peloponnesus, by which Athens, if for no other
reason than her situation, must have been moulded Leader
of the lomans in the Greaan motherland, she could not escape
the influence of her Dorian neighbours Hence it came to be,
by an irony of fate, that her greatest temple, the Parthenon, and
her most popular monument, the Propylaea, were m the Dorian
style, though they were in many respects different from the
Dorian works elsewhere Or was it that she strove to show that even
the Doric style itself could only attain perfection on Attic soil ^
In every place except Attica, the cleavage of the styles with the
population is quite marked The Doric so prevails in Sicily, southern
Italy, and the Peloponnesus, where the Dorians predominated,
that only one or two purely Ionic temples have there been
discovered , on the other hand, the temples of Athena at Assos
and Pergamum are the only important Greek Done works m
Ionian territory outside of Athens

Another decisive factor was the appearance of a group of great
artists to whom this economic over-production and developed
artistic tradition afforded opportunity for the exercise of their
skill We know at least the names of the great architects and
sculptors of this period, and we can identify some of their works.
Leader among the architects was Ictinus, the designer of the

110

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

Parthenon, which he made the subject of a book, unfortunately
lost, but mentioned by Vitruvius , this architect also designed
the temple of Apollo at. Bassae, near Phigaha, a work which,
though it does not exhibit all the grace of the Parthenon, is of
refined and remarkably advanced character. Ictinus was assisted
in his work on the Parthenon by Calhcrates, of whom less is known ,
and the name of Mnesicles has come down to us as that of the
creator of the Propylaea, which, as will afterwards appear, he did
not leave complete or even as he had originally intended it to be.
All these works, the Propylaea, the temple at Bassae, and m a lesser
degree the Parthenon, embrace both Done and Ionic principles,
as well as their distinctive features , and Calhcrates, furthermore,
is known as the designer of purely Ionic works, such as the temple
of Athena Nike, while it is quite possible that Mnesicles was the
author of the Erechtheum Beside these, Phidias, king of sculptors,
must have an honoured place This Athenian, at the tune of the
erection of the Parthenon, already enjoyed great fame throughout
Greece, and consequently he was able to command talent of
the highest order in carrying out his work — ^for it is not to be
supposed that he executed with his own hands the pediment,
frieze, and metope sculptures of the Parthenon, though they were
doubtless ah of his conception Among the greatest works of
Phidias were his cult statues and votive monuments ; to the
latter class belongs the colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos,
made of Persian spoil, which stood on the Acropohs between
the Propylaea and the Erechtheum (as shown in the restoration,
Plate XLV , c/ Fig 51, D), and whose gilded helmet crest gleamed
53 feet above the rock, a landmark for sailors far at sea , and m
the former class was the world^s wonder of the PanheUenic Zeus
at Olympia To these, under the patronage of Pencles, he added
the gold-and-ivory figure of Athena m the cella of the Parthenon,
and the bronze statue of the Lemnian Athena which stood near the
Propylaea. In lesser undertakmgs we meet^the names of other
sculptors, chiefly the pupils of Phidias, such as Agoraentus who
worked at Rhamnus, and Alcamenes who worked in the Theseum ,
and there was also Calhmachus, the designer of the Corinthian
capital. These are merely the names of the men in the immediate
employ of the Periclean government ; but also m other parts
of Greece we meet at this time a few prominent names, such as
Libon pf Ehs and Eupolemus of Argos, the architects, and

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 111

Polyclitus of Argos and Paeonms of Mende, the sculptors.

Before devoting our attention to the works which owed their
inspiration to Pericles and his advisers at Athens, it is desirable
to examine one or two of the Peloponnesian temples which form a
prelude to the culmination The most important of these was the
mam temple in the precmct already described at Ol 5 mipia, erected
from the designs of Libon of Ehs and dedicated to Zeus In plan
It is of the normal hexastyle Done t 5 ^e (Plate XXIV, Fig 40), with
thirteen columns on the flanks ; in size, however, it was most im-
posing, the largest of the Done temples erected m Greece proper. It
was built in the coarse shelly limestone of the district, covered with
a thin coat of white stucco and painted ; but the pediment sculptures,
the metopes of the inner porches, and the simas and roof tiles,
were of Panan marble (partly repaired in later times with Pentelic
marble)* and the acrotena were of bronze (Plate XXX) Portions
of the remains of the temple were already known as a result of the
partial exploration of the site by the French Expedition de Mores,
but the complete exposure of the plan by the Germans has revealed
features hitherto unrecorded Obviously the building had never
been converted into a church, as in the case of the Parthenon and
other temples in Greece, and therefore the pavement is better
preserved and shows traces of the folding gates between the columns
and antae of the pronaos, as also those of the great door leading
mto the cella. A range of seven Doric columns on each side, of
limestone hke those on the exterior, divided the cella mto a nave
and two side aisles, and carried a gallery (a later msertion), with
an upper range of columns to support the ceihng (Plate XXX) Just
within the great doorway, on either side, have been found the

* Pausamas speaks particularly of the roof of marble " wrought into the
shape of tiles It has been suggested {cf Penrose in Whibley, Companion
to Greek Studies, 3rd ed , 1916, p 278, and P Gardner, Principles of Greek
Art, 1924, p 47) that Parian marble was employed for the tiles, here and
elsewhere, on account of its translucency, which would not only light the
space between the roof and the ceilings of the peristyle and cella, but might
even partly account for the illumination of the interior of the cella, through
openings in the framed ceiling, which otherwise was lighted alone through
the open door But the existence of special tiles with elliptical openings
shows that the architect was not disposed to rely solely on the translucency
of the material A number of tiles with similar pierced openings surrounded
with projecting rims have been found at Pompeii, and drawings of some are
given by Durm, Baukunst der Bomer (1905), p 333, 111 363 , see also below
concerning Bassae In any case, we must reject the idea, so frequently
advanced, of a hypaethral opening in the roof, which with its notch in the
ndge line would have had a very ugly effect from the exterior,

112

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

sinkings in which it is supposed that the string-pieces of wooden
stairways were fixed, leading, as Pausanias says, to the gallery on
either side of the cella, and continued up to the space between
the ceihng and the roof Across the ceUa are the traces of a stone
screen about 6 feet high, with folding doors in the centre , and
similar stone screens, from the second to the fifth columns on

each side, were fitted withm the
central flutes of the columns
Beyond the fifth columns, round
the spot where the pedestal of the
statue stood, are traces of metal
enclosures , and metal gates also
Kilosed each aisle between the
second columns and the walls on
either side. Access, therefore, to
the mner portions of the cella, and
by staircases to the galleries, was
given only to privileged persons,
so that they could approach nearer
to the chryselephantine statue of
Zeus In front of the base of the
pedestal was a sunk pavement of
bluish-black Eleusmian limestone,
enclosed by a raised border of
Pentehc marble, forming an im-
pluvium or shallow tank in which
the oil, mentioned by Pausanias,
was kept, the oil apparently being
necessary to pi event the ivoiy
from splitting, and probably the
wooden core from swelling, in the
damp climate of the Altis *

Fig 40

Thmplf of Zeus at Olympia

Slightly later m date is the temple of Apollo Epicurius at
Bassae in Arcadia, a remarkable example by Ictmus, the architect
of the Parthenon, and suggestive of the versatihty of its author.
Here, to be sure, we do not fmd the same dehcate subtleties of

curve in stylobate, columns, or entablature, which occur in the

Parthenon, either because the architect recogmsed that such

• A similar precaution was taken in the Parthenon, except that m the latter
only water was required to counteract tlie intense dryness of the Acropohs

SECTION OF THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA

(restored by j. k. smith).

plate xxxir.

IONIC ORDER AT BASSAE.

CORINTHIAN ORDER
AT BASSAE

PLATE XXXIII

THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, FROM THE EAST.

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 113

refinements were not easily reproduced in any other material
than Pentehc marble, or because the extraordinary labour and
accuracy required in the work at Athens were of so costly a nature
that they were not likely to be undertaken in these inaccessible
mountains On the other hand, the plan (Fig 41) departs from
the usual conventional arrangements in detail, and new features
are introduced which, m Athens,
might have been thought to have too
progressive a tendency The plan of
the temple runs north and south
instead of east and west, and behind
the cella is a second chamber* with a
doorway facing the east It is possible
that this covers the site of an earlier
and smaller temple dedicated to Apollo,
facing eastward, which the architect
was instructed to bring mto his
design ; and this would account for
the unusual length of a temple of this
period which, though hexastyle on the
facades, has fifteen columns on the
flanks Externally the temple is Doric
(Plate XXXIII), but on both sides of
the cella are Ionic semi-columns (Plate
XXXI), which are attached to the ceUa
wall by short spur walls , and midway
between the southernmost pair of
Ionic semi-columns stood an isolated
Corinthian column, separatmg the
mam cella from the inner compart-
ment m

the god, illuminated through the
eastern doorway Very pecuhar is the close juxtaposition of the
first pair of spur walls to the massive masonry of the north
doorway, and also the diagonal arrangement of the spur walls at
the south end of the cella Between the semi-columns were thus
formed niches for votive offerings and statues , and the floor of
the central portion of the ceUa was shghtly sunk, not to form an
impluvium as at Olympia, but merely to emphasise the Ionic
bases by raising them as if on an internal stylobate

which was the statue of Temple of Apollo

Wiiiuii WCIB tiic aLtttuc EpICURIUS AT BaSSAE

114

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

The capital of the Ionic order in the ceUa (Plate XXXII) is a new
and original feature, designed to meet special requirements. Having
only a semi-column to deal with, and desiring to detach completely
three sides of his capital, the architect designed one with angle volutes
at each corner. Instead of carr3dng across horizontally the fillet
which connects the two volutes of the ordinary Ionic capital,
and which in this case, owing to the concave plan of the volutes,
would have appeared to dip in the centre, he raised it and
with a fine sweep made it a continuation of the curves of the
volutes. The raising of the upper fillet, however, resulted in
another difficulty, that of designing an abacus to fit it ; * and the
result is not quite satisfactory. Like the volute cushion, the abacus
is also concave in plan. The capital is not set out on the same
axis as that of the shaft, and the side faces are slightly different
from that on the front. The capitals of the southernmost Ionic
columns did not align with the diagonal spur walls behind them,
but agreed with the others in aligning with the architrave and thus
aligned also with the abacus of the Corinthian capital at the end
of the cella. This latter was the oldest example of the order known
(Plate XXXII), and possibly antedated its supposed invention by
Callimachus as mentioned by Vitruvius ; or, if we accept the story
of the invention, assuming that Callimachus was the first to apply
the acanthus decoration to the older form of bell capital as
illustrated in the archaic treasmies at Delphi, we must regard
the example at Bassae as one of the earliest designs produced by
him or under his immediate influence, f The two girdles of acanthus

* In the first publications of this temple, in the Antiquities of Athens
(suppl. vol.) and in the Expedttion Scientifique de Moree, no abacus is shown ;
but it appears to have been carved out of a separate block (of which
Cockerell gives the drawing) not known to the earlier investigators, though
the special bed for it exists at the tops of the spur walls.

t Vitruvius informs us that the capital was invented by Callimachus
at Corinth. Now Callimachus was the craftsman who is said by Pausanias
to have made a golden lamp for the goddess Athena Polias in the Erechtheum,
and probably also the bronze palm tree reaching to the roof which drew
off the smoke. As the earliest Greek Corinthian capitals all suggest a
metaUic origin, and as Callimachus is known to have worked both in bronze
and in marble, it may be conjectured that he reproduced in marble a type
of capital which was copied firom one in bronze. Pausanias refers also to
CorintMan bronze, which he says " got its colour by being plunged red hot
into this water,” referring to the fountain of Pirene. Corinthian bronze,
for various reasons, was celebrated in ancient times, and Pliny says that
the porticus built at Rome by Cneius Octavius was called Corinthian from
its brazen Corinthian capitals. The title, therefore, may have been given
either because the capital was invented by Callimachus at Corinth, or on
account of the material in which the first protot3^e was wrought.

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 115

leaves at the bottom, the fleuron (here a palmette) at the middle
of each face, the eight pairs of volutes, and the abacus with its
concave sides, are aU here present, though in somewhat rudimentary
form. This marble Corinthian column, and the marble Ionic
capitals, together with their entablature, seem to be slightly later
than the rest of the cella, which is of limestone.

Above the Ionic and Corinthian capitals was a complete Ionic
entablature, with a frieze richly carved with figure sculpture
(now in the British Museum) inserted between the architrave
and cornice. This complicates the question of the restoration of
the ceiling, since transverse beams laid across the ceUa, supporting
a horizontal wooden ceiling in the usual manner, would have
ruined the effect of the frieze so far as its lighting was concerned.
An alternative would be to omit the entire ceiling within the
area enclosed by the frieze, and to leave a corresponding hypaethral
opening in the roof ; * but this would give the same ugly external
effect of a notch in the ridge line to which we have previously
found objection. This, nevertheless, was the scheme adopted by
CockereU, though he reduced the area of the hypaethral opening
by assuming that at the centre the rafters were self-supporting
cantilevers, the ridge being omitted and their weight taken entirely
by the Ionic entablature with the waU above ; but this large
opaion does not seem to be a possible solution of the problem,t
and, moreover, the moulding represented as enframing it does
not exist. We must, therefore, assume that the roof was continuous
throughout the length of the temple. The marble roof tiles at
Bassae are of such marvellous workmanship, and fitted one another
so exactly, that they were probably carried directly on the rafters,
without the interposition of the close boarding and bed of mud
which were necessary for the terra-cotta tiles of other buildings.
These marble tiles measured 3 feet 6| inches long by 2 feet SJ inches
wide (being the largest tiles known) ; seven of them on each side
covered the slope of the roof (exclusive of the ridge and eaves

* The sunken area in the floor below, sometimes regarded as evidence
for a hypaethral opening above, in reality had quite another function, as
previously noted.

t In the Taylor Buildings at Oxford, designed by Professor Cockerell,
the staircase hall is covered with a roof of similar design and with a skylight
in the centre. Round the wall, and at the same distance from the skylight
as in his restoration of the temple, Cockerell had the Bassae frieze reproduced ;
the result, however, as regards the lighting of the figures, is disastrous,
two-thirds of them being in shadow.

116

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

tile), the cover tile being worked in the same slab at one side of
the main tile (Fig. 42), The translucency of these tiles was so great
that through them the cella might have been flooded with light
had the ceihng been omitted. But here again, as at Olympia,
portions of tiles were found with openings pierced in them, edged
with raised rims to prevent the rain running down through them ; *
one of these seems to show two comers, which would give for
the rectangular opening a length of about 22 inches, and, the
distance from the centre of the cover tile to the inside of the rim
being 7| inches, a width of 9| inches, always supposing that each
piercing was confined to one tile as in the other instances known.

Fig. 42. — Roof Tiles at Bassae.

Covering the cella in the length are eighteen tiles, and on each
slope are two tiles below the ridge tile ; if a certain proportion
of these seventy-two tiles were pierced, the openings, 9 J by 22 inches,
would have afforded ample light to the cella, and the amount
of rain which would fall into them would not be considerable.
Below such a roof the ceiling could be restored on one of three
ways. It might have been wholly omitted, exposing to view the
under surfaces of the wooden rafters and marble roof tiles ; t but

' Cockerell found a piece of one of these pierced tiles, which he used for
Ills opaion^ In a second visit paid by Baron Haller, who was Cockerell’s com-

panion at Bassae when the temple was first explored by him, two other pierced
^ of which were pubUshed by Papworth in 1866.

® restoration, with the opaion, exposes only a portion of the
“asked inside with linings and coffers. In
suggested that the rafters might have
been of marble, hollowed out to dimmish their weight like the ceiling beams

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 111

this type of construction, frequent enough in secular colonnades
and other buildings, would have been unprecedented in a temple.
Another form was suggested in a sketch of the interior by Cockerell
(Plate XXXI), in the form of a segmental vault with a central
opening, though no reference to it was made in his description ;
apparently the unusual arrangement of the spur walls in plan gave
him the idea that there was a thrust of some kind to be resisted.
But neither this form, which does not seem Greek, nor a flat ceiling
with a correspondingly large opening, would be free from the
objection that it would concentrate all the available light in one
spot and leave the rest of the frieze in shadow. It seems
preferable, therefore, to adopt a third solution, employing the
customary horizontal coffered ceiling with transverse wooden
beams across the ceUa, but leaving numerous framed openings
in the coffers or sunk panels, possibly alternating with the
openings in the tiles above, in order to obtain an effect of
diffused light.

It is at Athens that we may best study the works of the culminat-
ing period ; and it is on the Acropolis that we find the masterpiece
of all these works, the Parthenon. The work of Ictinus and
Callicrates in partnership, it was executed in a period of ten years,
from 447 to 438 B.C., and after its dedication in the latter year
the labour of the sculptors was continued until the outbreak
of the Peloponnesian War in 432 B.c. The site was the lofty
platform already prepared on the south side of the Acropolis
for the Older Parthenon, a site which not only made it the
principal crowning feature of the Acropolis as seen from the
south and west (Plates I, XLV and XLVII), but on the Acropolis
itself rendered it the most imposing structure there (Plates XXXIII,
XXXIV and XXXV) so that it was worthy of the various subtleties
both in line and in proportion that it was to receive at the hands of
Ictinus and Callicrates, and of its enrichment by Phidias with the
most beautiful sculpture that the world has seen. Fortunately there
remains enough of the exterior to enable us to restore it more or less

of the north and south peristyles (the clear spans being about 7 feet for the
rafters as compared with 13 feet for the ceiling beams), with the marble
tiles resting directly upon them. Then there would have been no necessity
to hide them internally or to fill the intervals between ; and such a scheme
of construction would have accorded with the statement of Pausanias, " The
temple of Apollo, the Succourer, is built of stone, roof and all,” a description
never given of any other temple.

118

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

completely in our imagination.* The plan (Fig. 51, GH) is more
pretentious than that of any other Doric temple erected on the
Greek mainland, recalling temple '' GT " at Selinus with its
octastyle facades and seventeen columns on the flanks ; the
size, however, is considerably smaller than in its great Sicilian
prototype. The new plan did not agree with that of the older
platform (Fig. 51, I-I), which was left unoccupied for a length
of 14 feet at the east end, and likewise for 5J feet at the south ;
on the other hand, the new building overlapped the old platform
by 11 feet at the north, requiring additional foundations of this
width along the north flank. The plan of the building within the
peristyle shows two distinct chambers, the cella proper with its
pronaos facing the east (Fig. 61, H), and a rear chamber with its
porch or opisthodomus facing the west (Fig. 51, G). The term
Parthenon given to the whole building is a later title, and was
confined at first to the rear chamber, which was officially known
as the Parthenon (chamber of the Virgin) and was used as a
treasury ; the cella was known as the Naos Hecatompedos (ceUa
of 100 feet), this being its approximate, though by no means
its exact, length. In the cella there were ten columns on either
side, and three columns at the west end in addition to those at
the comers. These are considered to have carried an architrave
with superposed columns above, as in the temples at Aegina and
Paestum already mentioned ; the primary object of these columns
would seem to have been the support of the beams of the ceiling
and roof, as there is no evidence for galleries. The three columns
at the west end show that the aisle was carried round the interior
of the cella, with bronze barriers fixed between the columns, so
as to allow privileged travellers like Pausanias to walk round
the chryselephantine statue of Athena and see it on aU sides ;
a similar arrangement existed in the temple of Zeus at Olympia,
except that there were no columns at the west end, a space merely
being left at the back of the pedestal to permit one to pass round.
The ceiling of the treasury or Parthenon, on the other hand,
was probably carried by four Ionic columns, of which traces of
the bases have been found on the pavement ; the reason for the
employment of this order was the desire to avoid the superposed
storeys of columns, which in such a shallow room would have

* The north flank, furthermore, is now being rebuilt by piecing together
the scattered fragments. j r & &

DETAIL OF THE NORTH-WEST CORNER OF THE

THE SOUTH PERISTYLE OF THE PARTHENON, DORIC FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, SHOWING CONTINUOUS

LOOKING EAST. IONIC FRIEZE BEHIND, WEST FRONT.

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 119

seemed rather absurd, and yet at the same time to occupy less
floor space than would have been required for Doric columns
tall enough to reach the ceiling.

The temple is so well preserved, in its essential parts, that
Penrose was enabled to measure mathematically those subtle
refinements both in design and construction which make it, the
most remarkable building in the world. In speaking of these
refinements, Professor Percy Gardner says : " The whole building
is constructed, so to speak, on a subjective rather than an objective
basis ; it is intended not to be mathematically accurate, but to
be adapted to the eye of the spectator. To the eye a curve is a
more pleasing form than a straight line, and the deviations from
rigid correctness serve to give a character of purpose, almost of
hfe, to the solid marble construction.”* The delicate curves and
inclinations of the horizontal and vertical lines were first noticed
by Cockerell (1810), Donaldson (1818), and Hoffer and
Pennethome (1836-1837), and in 1846 were measured by Penrose,
who published his well-known work on the subject in 1851,
a second edition of which, with further notes, appeared in 1888.
The rising curves given to the stylobate and entablature
in order to give a feeling of life and to prevent the appearance
of sagging, t the convex curve to which the entasis of the columns
was worked in order to correct the optical illusion of concavity
which might have resulted if the sides had been straight,! and the
slight inward inclinations of the axes of the columns so as to give
an appearance of greater strength, § all entailed a mathematical
precision in the setting out of the work and in its execution which
would have been impossible in any other material than the Pentehc

* Gardner, Grammar of Greek (1906), p.39.

t First noticed by Hoffer and Pennethome. The three steps of the
platform are virtually of equal height throughout; consequently the rise
had been already attained in the substructure. This was done partly by
trimming the top course of the basement of Piraic stone, and partly (on the
north flank) by reducing the thin marble levelling course immediately
under the platform towards the corners. As for the entablature, Vitruvius
seems to have assumed, and probably rightly, that the curve followed and
was a consequence of that of the stylobate. Penrose on the other hand argued
that the reverse was the case ; that Ictinus, in order “ to obviate a disagree-
able effect produced by the contrast of the horizontal with the inclined
lines of a flat pediment,” which gave an apparent dip to the former, decided
that the horizontal lines must rise towards the middle, which require a similar
rise in the stylobate in order that the columns might be of equal height.

X First noticed by Cockerell, and afterwards measured and verified by
Penrose.

§ First noticed by Donaldson, and subsequently measured by Penrose.

120

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

marble with which it was built. The upward curvature of the
stylobate {cf. Fig. 43) in the Parthenon amounts to 2f inches
on the facades and to 4f inches on the flanks ; the radius of the latter
curve, an arc of an enormous circle, is about 3^ miles. The entasis
{cf. Fig. 44) is probably likewise a circular arc,* with a maximum
increment of about inch, so that the radius would have been
nearly half a mile. The inward inclination of the columns (Fig. 45)
was 2f inches ; it may be calculated that the axes of the columns
on the two sides of the Parthenon, if prolonged, would meet in
a hne more than one and a half miles above the pavement ;
the axes on the two facades being inclined at the same rate, it is
apparent that the axes of the angle columns, being inclined both

. tC* oT ufp4r te^

NORTH

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 121

from a straight line being less than I inch), and is most pronounced
in early examples such as the “ Basilica ” at Paestum (where
the deviation is inches, Fig. 44, I), or in late examples such as
the temple of Zeus Ol3nnpius at Athens (where it is inches).*
Although the Greek architects seem usually to have preferred
in their mouldings regular geometrical curves such as
the hyperbola, the parabola, and the elHpse, especiaU}^
for convex mouldings where perfection of contour is
more important than in concave mouldings, yet for
the fluting of the columns in the Parthenon an
approximate curve struck from three centres, and
known as a false ellipse, was adopted (according
to Penrose) : the central portion of the curve had
a radius equal to the width of the flute, and the
radii of the portions on either side diminished with
the decreasing depth of the flutes in the upper
portions of the shaft, the principal object throughout
being to accentuate the arris. In the Propylaea, as
also in most of the earlier Doric examples in
southern Italy and Sicily, the curves were segments
of circles.

The Parthenon being a completed work, the
evidence for the method of its construction and
finish is mainly derived from other Greek buildings
which for various reasons have never been
terminated, such as the temples of Nemesis at
Rhamnus, Demeter at Eleusis, Zeus at Stratos, and
Apollo at Delos, the so-called stoa at Thoricus, and
the temple “ GT ” at Selinus and that at Segesta
already mentioned, from the last of which it may
be inferred that the peristyle of a temple was the
first part erected (Plate XXIII). In all these Entasis of
temples the columns are still unfluted, and the columns.
treads and risers of the steps retain their
rough un worked surfaces, being drafted at their junction so as to
obtain fine joints ; often they retain also the ancones or

* The comparative entasis given approximately by Penrose {Athenian
Architecture, p. 40) is twelve for the temple of Zeus Olympius, eleven for
the larger and nine for the smaller order of the Propylaea, and eight, six,
and four for the Parthenon, Theseum, and Erechtheum respectively, the height
of the column being regarded as uniform.

122

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

ears, projecting bosses by which the stones were lowered into
their positions* The gradual rise of the stylobate was
constructed, according to Vitruvius, by means of the scamilli
impares) his remarks on this subject are not clear, but it
is probable that he referred to the fonnation of the curve,
on the top course of the foundations, by means of levelling
cubes of various heights, so arranged that when their tops
lay in a horizontal plane, their bottoms described the proper
curve and indicated to what depth the foundation course had

to be dressed. Where

U j r the stylobate received

\ I J the lowest drum of the

cf column the surface was

U I f ^ sunk to its proper depth

N — N p-, ; / (Fig. 46), and on this

j 1 ■ were traced the dia-

1 1 i meters marking the axis

’ * of the column and a

circle forming its circum-
ference ; the area within
this was worked lightly
over to give some hold
to the lower surface of
the drum of the column.
On the lowest drum, in
the Doric columns, the
I flutes were finished for 2

F:g. 46.-INCUNATIONS OF Dofic Coi,™ns. ®

Exaggerated. rest being left roughly

circular. At the upper
joints the arrangement was different. There a square sinking was
made in the centre of the upper and lower surface of each drum
(Fig. 46), about 4 to 6 inches square and 3 to 4 inches deep,
in which plugs of cypress wood were fixed ; at the exact centre
of the drum a round hole about 2 inches in diameter was bored
in each plug, so that a circular wooden pin, inserted in the hole
at the bottom of a drum, would fit the corresponding hole in
the top of the drum below, forming a simple method of centring

* It seems improbable that, as is sometimes assumed, the bosses were used
also to work the stones backwards and forwards in order to grind the joints.

PLATE XXXVII.

THE TEMPLE AT SUNIUM FROM THE EAST,

PLATE XXXVIII.

ANTA capital from the ERECHTHEUM (BRITISH MUSEUM).

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 123

the drams accurately one upon another,* Between the centre and
the circumference several concentric circles appear on the
bed of the drum, the outermost ring being smoothly polished
to form a joint that was practically invisible, while the next
zone was slightly roughened in order to give the drums better
hold upon each other ;
a third zone was
slightly depressed,
with the object of
reducing the amount
of surface that was
actually in contact ;
and generally there
was an innermost
zone, rising again to
the level of the joint,
immediately round the
wooden plug mention-
ed above. There are
from ten to twelve of
these drums in each
column of the Parth-
enon. None of the
dram joints was truly
horizontal, all being
perpendicular to the
inclined axis of the
column {Fig. 45). But
on the lowest drum, in consequence of the curve of the stylobate,
the side toward the comer of the building had to be carried down
a fraction lower than on the side toward the central axis of the
building, and likewise, both on account of the curvature and because
of the inward inclination of the colunrn axis, the outer face had to
be carried down considerably lower than the back (toward the cella
wall).t Similar difficulties were experienced with the uppermost

Fig. 46 , — ^Construction of Columns, showing
Centring Pin.

* In the earlier editions of this work it was assumed that the wooden
pins were really pivots on which the drums were worked round so as to
grind the blocks closely together, a theory evolved by Penrose, against
which there are numerous grave objections.

t Penrose and other authorities have applied to the variations of height
on the different sides of the lowest drums, due to their adjustment both

124

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

drums, because of the necessity of presenting for the bed of the
capital a plane parallel to the soffit of the architrave. The necking
of the capital was also fluted to correspond to the bottom of the
shaft, and the echinus was perfectly finished* ; but on the abacus
must have been left un worked surfaces or comers to protect them.
The walls were likewise built up with their faces completely
enveloped in the unworked surfaces, and with the lifting bosses
still remaining on the blocks ; the vertical joints were hoUowed
with the exception of a polished band 2^ or 3 inches wide round
the edges, in order to secure closer contact ; and aU the joints,
both horizontal and vertical, were left with a slight bevel intended
to prevent chipping when the blocks were placed together. All
the blocks were laid dry, without mortar ; for a bonding material
was used iron, dowels to fasten the blocks to those below them,
and clamps of double-T form to connect blocks in the same course,
all sealed in molten lead. The members of the entablatures and
ceilings appear to have been set in place practically complete ;
the unworked surfaces with a few exceptions were confined to
the platform and columns and walls, these being the portions
most liable to injury during the process of erection. On the
completion of the temple the fluting of the columns was worked
from top to bottom with that delicate entasis which gives such
beauty to its outline ; the faces of the walls were dressed and
mbbed so that the bevels at the joints, and almost the joints
themselves, disappeared ; and the treads and risers of tbe steps
were worked down to their smooth surfaces.

As for the sculptures of the Parthenon, of which the most
representative portions are in the British Museum, it is apparent
that the metopes (Plates XXXV, XXXVI), being constructed
separately from the triglyphs and afterwards slipped into place, were
probably carved on the ground before being raised to their positions ;
and this conjecture seems to be verified by the differences in the
style of the sculptured slabs themselves. On the other hand, the
continuous Panathenaic frieze on the external walls of the cella
formed an integral part of the structure, and was probably carved
in situ ; a remarkable feature of it is the location of such sculpture

to the curved stylobate and to the inclination of the columns, the term
scamilli impares used by Vitruvius ; but evidently the latter was referring
only to the stylobate construction.

* There is no assumption for the statement that it was turned in a lathe.

PLATE XXXIX

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 125

in a position where it could hardly be appreciated (Plate XXXVI).
Nothing was said by Pausanias about this frieze, representing the
procession which took place every four years during the Panathenaic
festival ; it starts from the south-west angle, running east and
north, and meeting over the pronaos, where the procession, headed
on either side by the maidens selected to work the sacred robe
and here represented as bearing religious offerings, arrives before
the assembled gods who are grouped in the centre, seated, while
behind them the old peplos is being folded up to be stored away.
The figures decorating the pediments, the latest of the marble
sculptures of the temple, are known to have been executed on the
ground before being set in place. The only literary notice that
we possess of the subject of the pedimental sculptures is from
Pausanias, who says, " the whole subject of the pediment over
the entrance {i.e., the east pediment) is the circumstances of the
birth of Athena, and that of the pediment at the back is the contest
of Poseidon with Athena for the land." Drawings said to have been
made by Jacques Carrey in 1674 give the positions of the figures
in the west pediment, but in the east pediment the central group
was already missing. Finally, a few words should be said about
the chryselephantine statue of Athena, Phidias’s masterpiece.
This was constructed on a wooden core, having ivory for the face,
feet, and hands, and gold for the drapery, ground, and accessories.
Its position, standing well out in the central portion of the cella,
is known from the traces of the pedestal on the pavement. The
total height of the statue and its pedestal was twenty-six cubits
(close upon 40 feet), and from the description of it given by
Pausanias it is evident that the closest copy of it is found in a
statuette discovered near the Varvakeion Gymnasium in Athens
in 1880, and now in the National Museum, though in minor details
it differs somewhat from the description.

The perfected type of the Doric hexastyle temple exists in the
so-called Theseum, which owes its comparatively perfect preserva-
tion to the fact of its having been converted into a church by the
Byzantine Greeks. It consists of a cella, with a pronaos and
opisthodomus, and is surrounded by a peristyle with six columns
on the fronts and thirteen on the flanks (Plate XXXVII, XXXIX).
Its proportions are less satisfactory than those of the Parthenon,
owing to the unfortunate combination of lighter columns with a
heavier entablature. Only eighteen of the external metopes are

126

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

decorated with sculpture ; ten on the east front, and the four
adjoining the east end on the north and south flanks (Plate
XXXVIII) ; the pediments were also filled with statues which
have now disappeared. A sculptured frieze runs above the
pronaos and opisthodomus, in the former case being carried
across also to the north and south peristyles. The relative
proportion of diameters to heights of the columns and other details
have led Dorpfeld and others to give it a later date than the
Parthenon ; and, as the temple or heroum dedicated to Theseus
is known to have been built by Cimon in 475 B.C., the existing
building requires a different name, and is now generally recognised
as the temple of Hephaestus men-
tioned by Pausanias, in which case
it must have contained the bronze
statues of Athena and Hephaestus
designed by Alcamenes, m 421 b.c.
Similar temples were erected outside
Athens, at Rhamnus and Sunium
(Plate XXXVII), probably by the
architect of the Theseum ; both
show the use of slender proportions,
of continuous friezes, and of carved
Fig. 47.— Plan of Angle ornament, which characterise the
Capital, Temple of Athena influence on the Doric build-

ings of this period. And of about
the same epoch is a much larger Doric hexastyle temple dedicated
to Hera near Argos, excavated by an American expedition in
1893 ; it was the work of the local Argive architect Eupolemus,
richly decorated with sculpture and carved ornament, and con-
tained the gold-and-ivory statue of Hera wherewith Polyclitus
attempted to rival the Zeus of Phidias.

Temples purely Ionic in style likewise arose on Attic soil during
this period. A small example on the Acropolis is that of Athena
Nike, or Nike Apteros (" without wings "), which was planned
before the adjoining Propylaea but was probably built sub-
sequently, at about 426 B.c. (Plate XL, Fig. 61b). The
architect was Callicrates of the Parthenon. The temple crowns
the bastion on the south side of the west approach to the
Acropolis, and seems to have been built on the site of an earlier
temple or altar ; its north side rests on a very early polygonal

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 127

wall, and its axis, nearly due east and west, forms a marked angle
with those of the Propylaea and the Parthenon. This temple
disappeared for a time, having been taken down and utilised in
the construction of a central bastion by the Turks ; but on the
destruction of this in 1835, the temple was rebuilt in the following
seven years. At the same time were discovered many of the
sculptured slabs which formed a parapet along the north, west,
and south edges of the bastion, and these rank among the most
beautiful sculptures of all periods. The temple itself, built of
Pentelic marble, is of the Ionic order, amphiprostyle and tetra-
style — that is to say, it has prostyle porticoes of four columns
each towards the east and west. There was still another small
temple of very similar design in Athens, on the borders of the
Ilissus (Plate XL), which was fortunately measured and drawn by
Stuart and Revett before its destruction by the Turks in 1778.
Although in no sense archaic, the entablature is of exceptional
severity, the architrave being unbroken by fascias ; and the comice
is without dentils, showing the same simple bed moulding that we
find in the temple of Athena Nike and the Erechtheum ; the date
is probably about the middle of the fifth century.

The most elaborate of these Ionic temples, however, was that
erected opposite to the Parthenon, on the north side of the
Acropolis, called the Erechtheum (Figs. 48, 49, 51f ; Plates
XLI — ^XLIV), a building as complicated in its plan as the
Parthenon is simple. It was built on two levels, had three
porticoes of different design, and seems to have been a com-
bination of two or three temples in one. Whether this irregularity
was due to its occupying the sites of earlier buildings and
the necessity of preserving intact certain spots sacred to
the Athenians,* or also in part to changes of plan during the
course of erection, is not known with certainty ; but the architect,
whose name is also unknown (though that of Mnesicles has been
suggested), would seem to have accepted the difficulties of the
situation and to have designed a building which more than any
other shows the elasticity of the Greek style. The main block,
built to be seen from the higher level, covers an area of 37 feet by

* It was on this site that, according to tradition, Athena and Poseidon
are supposed to have contended for the dominion of Athens as represented
in the west pediment of the Parthenon ; and the mark of the trident in the
rock, the well of sea water, and the sacred olive tree are all mentioned by
Pausanias.

128

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

71 feet, including a prostyle hexastyle portico of six Ionic columns
at the east end ; the west end of the block had, in Roman times
at least, four semi-detached Ionic columns between antae, with
three windows in the intervening walls.* On the north side of the
block was a broad flight of steps leading to the lower level, and at
the western end of this north flank, but projecting also westward
of the main block, is a prostyle tetrastyle portico of six Ionic
columns, four columns in front and one behind each of the corner
columns. On the south side, and likewise close to the west end
(Fig. 48, D), is the Caryatid porch, f the marble roof of which is
carried by six Caryatid figures, four in front and two behind, all
facing the south and standing on a podium
about 6 feet high. Owing to many alter-
ations, even in Roman times, and to the
subsequent conversion of the temple, first
into a church and then into a Pasha’s resi-
dence, the restoration of the plan of the
interior is necessarily conjectural. At
distances of 25 feet and 48 feet respect-
ively from the east wall of the cella are
marks of the attachment of cross walls,
which would divide the area into three
chambers. Of these, the eastern chamber,
on the higher level, and entered from the
hexastyle portico of six columns, is supposed to have been the
cella of Athena Polias (Fig. 48, A) ; and the central and
western chambers were apparently divided only by a low screen
and constituted the shrine of Erechtheus (Fig. 48, B). The
sanctuary of Pandrosus is assumed to have been situated in
the court to the west of the Erechtheum (Fig. 48, C), the entrance
to this court, in which the olive tree grew, being through a side
doorway in the north portico. The cistern containing the salt
sea of Poseidon was evidently under the floor of the western

* These were blown down during a hurricane in October, 1862, and the
whole front was rebuilt in 1904, after examination of the remains had led
archaeologists to the conclusion that both columns and windows were of
Roman date, perhaps replacing four isolated columns in-antis in the original
design.

t Tribune would be a better term ; for, although there is a narrow opening
in the podium on the east side, this probably was intended for priests only,
and did not form a proper entrance to the building.

Fig. 48. — ^The Erech-
theum

THE TEMPLE OF ATHENA NIKE, FROM THE EAST.

PLATE XLI,

EAST FRONT OF THE PROPYLAEA AT ATHENS.

.^ajiCiLE CAPITAL IN THE NORTH PORCH OF
THE ERECHTHEUM.

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 129

chamber of the temple* ; and the indentations stated by Pausanias
to have been produced by the trident of Poseidon were shown on
the rock floor of a crypt under the north portico.

The whole temple was built in Pentelic marble, with black
Eleusinian limestone for the frieze, to which figures in white marble
were attached by clamps. The intercolumniations and the relative
proportions of diameter to heights of columns vary in the different
porticoes ; in the east portico (Plate XLIV Fig. 49) they are barely
more than two diameters apart, and the relation of diameter to height
is 1 : 9| ; but in the north portico (Plate XLII) the columns are

more than two and three-fourths diameters apart, and the relation of
diameter to height is 1 : 9|. The bases of the columns of the semi-
detached columns of the west front (Plate XLI) are on a level
3 feet If inches higher than those of the east portico ; but, while
the height of the columns was made equal to nine diameters, the
intercolumniation was made almost the same as in the east portico.
The bases are of the ultimate form, the “ Attic base," which was
attained by adding, below the torus and hollow disk (simplified to
a single scotia) of the Asiatic t5q>e, a lower torus which gradually
increased in size until it became somewhat larger than the upper
one. The capitals are of exceptional richness (Plate XLI II), with
intermediate fillets in the volutes, connected in the form of a

* This was subsequently enlarged to occupy the entire area of the western
chamber, but the workmanship is evidently of mediaeval date.

130

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

sagging curve which would help to obviate, in a more successful way
than that attempted at Bassae, the drooping effect which, in the
corner capitals at least, might otherwise have been produced in the
upper fillets ; above the egg and tongue, moreover, is a torus mould-
ing richly carved with the guilloche, and, underneath the capital, a
band or necking carved with the anthemion (as at Naucratis,
Samos, and Locri). A similar enriched band decorates the antae
(Plate XXXVIII) and is carried round the entire building, together
with the profile of the anta capitals themselves, which differ from
Asiatic examples in forming merely a richly decorated series of
horizontal mouldings. The capitals of the corner columns of both
porticoes have, as usual, the volutes turned anglewise on the diagonal,
so as to face both ways ; the internal angles within the porticoes
had therefore two volutes intersecting each other at right angles
(c/. Fig. 47), a somewhat unsatisfactory solution of the problem.
Though the architrave retains the three fascias of the Asiatic Ionic
style, the dentils of the comice which form such prominent features
in the Ionic temples of Asia Minor are here omitted altogether and
replaced by a carved cyma. The entablature of the south portico
or Caryatid tribune (Plate XLI), on the other hand, omits the frieze,
probably with the idea of diminishing the load carried on the
heads of the human figures ; but in compensation the Asiatic
dentils reappear in the cornice, though much reduced in projection
and becoming merely an intermittent moulding, thus losing all
stmctural significance. These Caryatid figures perhaps represent
the “ arrephoroi ” alluded to by Pausanias as " the maidens who
bear on their heads what the priestess of Athena gives them to
carry.” The figures vary in the lines of the folds of their dress
and in their pose : the three on the left hand rest on the right leg,
and vice versa, the vertical folds of the dress (which suggest the
fluting of a column) being always on the side of the supporting
limb ; and they form the most satisfactory types that were ever
evolved from their archaic predecessors at Delphi.

Among other details of the temple must be noted the entrance to
the shrine of Erechtheus, the magnificent central doorway of the
north portico (Plate XLII), which may be regarded as an example of
the finest Greek design, though it has been restored in Roman
times and relined in the Byzantine period.* Equally rich are the
remains of two windows which flanked on either side the doorway
* See R. S, Weir, Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. XII.

PLATE XLIV

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 131

m the wall behind the east portico, leading to the shrine of Athena
Polias (Fig. 49) ; the mouldings of the comice and architrave of
the windows were richly carved with the egg and tongue, the
Lesbian leaf and dart, and the double guilloche, and there were
consoles on either side as in the north doorway.* The ceilings
of the east, north, and south porticoes were richly coffered in
marble, and those over the inner rooms showed, according to

inscriptions, a lighter coffered
the temple was thus minutely
carried out even to the last
details of woodwork, carving,
and painting, yet certain
details, such as the rosettes
on the architrave of the
Caryatid porch, escaped
attention. This was perhaps
due to the vicissitudes in
its history : for although the
Erechtheum was probably
commenced as early as
421 B.C., the works were
apparently stopped and not
resumed till 409 B.c.

A very unusual type of
temple was the Hall of the
Mysteries at Eleusis, forming
the most conspicuous feature
in the conjectural restora-

design executed in wood. Though

W ; 9 ID zp 30 FT

Fig. 50. — Hall of the Mystemes at
Eleusis.

tion by Gandy-Deering (Plate LVTII) ; it was designed just before
430 B.c. by Ictinus, the architect of the Parthenon, but, beyond
the scheme of its plan, no architectural remains of this period
have been found. The foundations of the present ruins, excavated
after 1882 by the Greek Archaeological Society, nearly four times
the size of the archaic temple on the same site, belong to the work
set out by Ictinus, the hall being approximately 170 feet square
internally (Fig. 50). As then arranged there were four rows of

* See G. P. Stevens, American Journal of Archaeology, vol. X. This
east wall had been destroyed to m^e way for the apse of the Byzantine
church established in the temple, and apparently the materials were utilised
in the foundation of the apse.

132

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

columns running parallel to the main south fagade, with five
columns in each row, the present arrangement with six rows each
of seven columns being due to a Roman renovation of the
interior ; the central rectangle probably formed an opaion, through
which light was admitted by means of a clerestory above the
roof, originally constructed, according to Plutarch, by a certain
architect named Xenocles. There were two entrance doorways
in the front, and also two on the right and on the left sides ; and
the hall is lined on all sides with steps or seats for the devotees,
cut wherever possible in the sohd rock. It was originally intended
by Ictinus that a peristyle should be carried externally round

B. Temple of Nike Apteros

O. Pinacotheca

D. Site of Statue of Athena Promachos

E. The Old Temple of Athena

P. The Erechtheum

G. The Parthenon i Parthenon or Treasury
T V o -u X X ^ 'Celia HecatompedosNaos
Substructure of Older Parthenon
K. Altar of Athena
h Etma and Augustus

M. Beuld Gate

three sides, the fourth being backed against the cliff ; but this
was abandoned, and only on the south front was it eventually
revived in a modified form, the dodecastyle portico added bv
Philon.

Leaving the subject of temples, we may glance first at the scheme
of the Acropolis as a whole, as it existed in the Periclean period
(Fig. 51). At the middle of the south and north edges of the long
plateau, now terraced up with massive retaining walls in order to
form a series of horizontal platforms connected with ramps and steps,
stood the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the former covering
the site of the Older Parthenon, while the latter lay just to the

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 133

north of its predecessor, the Old Temple of Athena, which was
apparently demolished to form a level platform. Farther west,
in the centre of the area between the two temples and the Propylaea,
stood the colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos. And at the
extreme west end " is the single access to the Acropolis ; no other
is practicable,” says Pausanias, ” as the hill rises abruptly on all
sides and is fortified with a strong waU.” The approach seems at
this epoch to have been an imsymmetrical winding path, probably
passing by the foot of the bastion carrying the temple of Athena
Nike (Plate XLV) ; the whole was modified to its present form in
Roman times, as will be noted later.

At the head of the ascent stood the Propylaea (Fig. 51 A ;
Plates I and XLV), a name given to the whole pile constructed
in 437 — 432 B.c. from
the designs of
Mnesicles, including
the central building
and, as originally de-
signed, four wings
(Fig. 52). The central
building contained
Doric hexastyle por-
ticoes facing west and
east, the former
resting on a platform
of four steps while the latter, owing to the rise in the ground, is
not only at a higher level but also stands merely on a simple
stylobate (Plate XLVI). The Doric columns are more than 5 feet
in diameter and are nearly 29 feet high on the west, about a foot
lower on the east. The central intercolumniation was much wider
than the others, and in its frieze occupied the width of three
metopes, the purpose being to provide easier access for the pro-
cession and the beasts of sacrifice (Plates XLII, XLV). The cross
wall, pierced with five doorways which correspond approximately
in axes and in widths with the varying intercolumniations of the
fa9ades, was placed nearer the inner or east faQade, so that the inner
vestibule, about a third of the total depth of the building, could be
spanned by a marble ceiling without intermediate supports. Hence
the depth of the vestibule behind the west fa9ade was about two-
thirds of the total depth of the building, and was about three-

Fig. 62. — ^The Propylaea of the Acropolis.
(Restored by Dorpfeld.)

134

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

quarters of its width ; the marble ceiling* in this case was carried
by a row of three Ionic columns (33 feet 9 inches in height) on each
side of the central roadway. The slender character of the Ionic
order enabled its height to exceed that of the Doric columns^ whilst
allowing of a far smaller diameter of the base (Plate XLVI), con-
siderations which prevailed, as we have seen, also in the Parthenon ;
the section through this vestibule affords a good example of the
proper relation of Doric and Ionic architraves and ceiUng. On
the left hand side of the main west front is a small building called
the Pinacotheca or picture gallery (Fig. 51, C), from the fact that
it was filled with paintings which were described by Pausanias
and others ; it forms a lateral wing to the Propylaea, from which
it is entered through a portico of three Doric columns in-antis,
while the chamber behind is lighted by windows on either side
of the doorway (Plate XLVI). On the south side the wing which
should have corresponded to the Pinacotheca stops short at the old
Pelasgic wall terracing the site which evidently formed part of the
sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia ; apparently the construction was
opposed by the priests of that goddess. For a similar reason the pro-
jection of this southern wing westwards was curtailed owing to the
site being occupied by the temple of Athena Nike. The curtailment
of Mnesicles’s design is evident also on the east side, where the antae
at the northeast and southeast comers of the central building,
and also a stump of wall at the northeast corner of the Pinacotheca,
prove that it was the intention of the architect to add further
structures, which would virtually have faced the whole west part
of the Acropolis (Fig. 52). f

It was during the fifth century that the art of theatre design
originated, in the structure erected against the south slope of the
Acropolis. At the beginning, the theatre was designed for the
performance of choral dances pertaining to the worship of Dionysus,
but they soon obtained a much greater importance and popularity,
and were used for a variety of purposes not always necessarily
dramatic. The earliest of these theatres was that of Dionysus at

* This seems to have attracted Pausanias's attention, as he says : " The
Propylaea has a roof of white marble, and the size and beauty of the stones
were remarkable even when I saw it."

t Dorpfeld’s restoration of these curtailed east halls and of the south-
west wing, as shown in Fig. 62, has been considerably modified by recent
American studies of the building, soon to be published : for instance, the
two rows of nine small columns facing eastward, and that of four small
columns facing westward, should each be replaced by solid walls.

THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS FROM THE SOUTH.

CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND PELOPONNESUS 135

Athens, where have been found traces of the original orchestra,
a perfect circle 87 feet in diameter, dating back to 499 B.c. The
orchestra was the scene of the dance, which was conducted round
the altar of Dionysus in the centre. There was at first no scene
building, and the seating space was the bare hillside. A httle
later the hillside was slightly excavated to give the auditorium
a steeper slope, the orchestra circle being at the same time moved
closer to the Acropolis, thus saving the expense of raising a founda-
tion for the upper seats ; and, while the beautiful prospect in itself
at first served as the scenery, a special scene building of wood
was soon introduced at the back of the orchestra. This scene
building may first have been required for acoustic reasons, but it
was soon employed also for displaying artificial scenery. The
theatre was at this unpretentious stage of its development when
the great plays were produced in it during the age of Pericles.

Adjoining the theatre was constructed by Pericles a new form
of building, the odeum or music hall. This was mentioned by
Plutarch, who says that “ the odeum, built under the supervision
of Pericles, has many seats and pillars within ; the roof was made
slanting and converging to one point, and they say that it was
after the model and as an imitation of the Persian king's tent.”
Vitruvius also mentions ” the odeum as you go out at the left side
of the theatre,” and says that ” it was set out with stone columns
and roofed with the yards and masts of ships captured from the
Persians.” It was restored after the sack of Athens by Sulla,
and (as stated by Pausanias) after the original design. Its position,
near the theatre, suggests that it was used for rehearsals and
musical contests, the latter introduced by Pericles himseh in
446 B.c. From ancient descriptions it was thought that, when
found, the building would prove to be circular ; but the foundations
recently discovered by the Greek Archaeological Society show that
it was a perfect square, with the roof supported by a forest of
columns in the manner of the Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis.

In this chapter we have considered together the buildings of the
two distinct orders, the Doric temples at Olympia and Bassae, at
Rhamnus and Sunium, the Argive Heraeum, and the Parthenon,
Propylaea, and Theseum, at Athens, as well as the Ionic Erech-
theum and temple of Athena Nike and that on the Ilissus. For

136

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

these two distinct types of Greek work found their culmination
and coalesced in the age of Pericles. All of those in Athens, at
least, could not by any possibility have been designed elsewhere ;
for on each of them there are marks of a distinctive Attic style.
It is to be noticed that the familiarity with the Ionic proportions
led the Attic artists to reject the ponderous proportions of Doric
columns, and to adopt a mean which inclines more closely to the
Ionic than any pre-existing examples. Yet the Parthenon and the
Theseum, in spite of this and other details which have been noticed,
such as their continuous sculptured friezes and many of their
ornaments, are substantially Doric. Of the buildings we have
examined, the Propylaea and the temple at Bassae combine most
freely the lonic-Doric principles, and most appropriately, each
finding its true place. But even in the purely Ionic buildings,
such as the Erechtheum, the Doric influence appears in a few
details, such as the insertion of a frieze in the entablature, and the
projecting antae at the ends of the walls. All of them thus in a
measure illustrate the coalescence of types which is characteristic
of Athenian work, as it was to some extent typical of the people
themselves.

Chapter VI

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

The supremacy of Athens in the Aegean portion of the Greek
world was but short lived ; for a succession of long wars, the
Peloponnesian (431-404 b.c.) and the Corinthian (395-387 b.c.),
drained aU her energies and deprived her of her Greek leadership.
Thus the fall of Athens in 404 b.c. may justly be taken as the
beginning of a new epoch ; humiliated and impoverished, she was
in no condition to maintain the high artistic excellence which she
had reached under Pericles, Less cultivated states became dominant
powers, such as Sparta (404-371 B.c.) and Thebes (371-362 b.c.) ;
then followed a period of vain struggles against the gradual
encroachments by a people hitherto considered foreign, the
Macedonians, whose recognised ascendency in Greek affairs may
be dated from the battle of Chaeronea in 338 B.c. It is but natural
that these rapid changes of political fortune should have found
their echo in the absence of great architectural undertakings.
During this century the architecture of the mainland is to be
traced only in comparatively minor structures.

In the colonies of the west, conditions were even worse ; we
find practically no work which can be attributed to the fourth
century. The catastrophe of the Carthaginian invasion, the
destruction of Selinus and Himera in 409 b.c., of Acragas in 406,
and of Gela and Camarina in 405 B.c., seem to have been followed
by a period of utter stagnation. In 405 B.c. was drawn up a treaty
between Carthage and the new tyrant of Syracuse, Dionysius,
according to which Carthage was recognised as dominant in the
western part of the island, and Syracuse remained the only
important Greek state.

Far otherwise was it in Asia Minor, where the Ionic cities had
played, as we observed, very little part in the artistic development
of the fifth century. They had fallen a prey to the Persians in

138

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

494 B.C., and were kept in subjection until the formation of the
Delian Confederacy in 478 b.c. Thenceforward until 404 b.c.
they were overshadowed by Athens, to whom they were con-
tributory ; and the downfall of Athens merely gave them a new
master, Sparta. It was not until the Peace of Antalcidas in 387 b.c.
that the mainland powers withdrew from Asia Minor, leaving the
Ionic cities in a state of comparative quiet under Persian sovereignty.
The luxurious conditions that developed under the Persian satraps
find their analogy only in the reigns of the Lydian kings and local
tyrants of the archaic period, and they brought about in Asia Minor
a revival of architectural grandeur, in which the qualities of the
magnificent and ornate are conspicuous ; in fact, the outstanding
feature of this fourth century is the so-caUed Ionic Renaissance.
The arrival of Alexander the Great in 334 b.c. found many great
projects under way ; and the new conqueror was quick to seize
the opportunity and to make the completion of the great Ionic
temples a personal issue. There was no marked break in the
development until after the partition of Alexander’s empire by
his generals.

Throughout the Greek world, however, the fourth century is
characterised by certain general tendencies. In the first place,
it marked the beginning of a decline from aesthetic perfection. The
religious aspect, the chief inspiration of any style of art, had reached
its culmination in the Periclean temples, and now began to be
outweighed by human elements, a stage of development which
indicates that we have passed the crest of the wave. From the
temple, which had previously represented almost the sole aim
of architecture, attention was diverted to a great variety of
structures, almost as many types of buildings as we erect at the
present day, corresponding to the varied activities of a more
complex civihsation. And even in religious architecture the same
striving for diversity and innovation is manifest in the increase
of ornament, at the expense of strength and dignity.

*****

The great temple building epoch on the Greek mainland had
passed with the end of the fifth century ; the Doric order was
incapable of being further perfected, so that architects began to
seek variety by introducing additional ornament or combining it
with other orders. Typical of the period was the temple of Athena

PLATE XLVIII.

THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS-CYBELE AT SARDIS.

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

139

Alea at Tegea, built from the designs of the sculptor Scopas, and
described by Pausanias in the following terms : " The first row
of columns is Doric, and the next Corinthian ; without* the temple,
too, stand columns of the Ionic order.” This is, incidentally,
Pausanias’s only reference to the Corinthian order ; he regarded
the temple as the most beautiful of all those in the Peloponnesus,
and in size it was second only to that at Olympia. The researches
made by Dorpfeld, and subsequently by the French, proved that
the peristyle was Doric, and many of the drums and capitals were
found. The pronaos and opisthodomus likewise were Doric ; but
the cella was lined with semi-detached columns imitating the
arrangement at Bassae, though the capitals were Corinthian rather
than Ionic. It is probable that the Ionic columns were votive
monuments on separate foundations flanking the approach to the
temple. This combination of the orders was characteristic also of
other mainland temples of the fourth century, such as those of
Apollo at Delphi (Plate XXV), of the Mother of the Gods at Olympia
(Plate XXIV M), of Zeus at Stratos, and of Zeus at Nemea, the latter
distinguished also by the extremely slender Doric columns of its
peristyle (Plate XL VIII). Another characteristic example was the
temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus, purely Doric but remarkable on
account of the omission of the opisthodomus, a fact which holds
true also of Nemea. All these temples are hexastyle, the number
of flank columns varying from eleven to fifteen.

Contrasted with this comparative inactivity on the Greek
mainland is the long list of Ionic temples of this period in Asia
Minor. One of the most t 3 q)ical, though at the same time least
pretentious, of these is the temple of Athena at Priene, near
Miletus, a small but beautiful example built at about 340 b.c.
from the designs of Pythius, who wrote a book about it. It was
hexastyle, with eleven columns on the flanks, and is of the ordinary
plan, with pronaos, ceUa, and opisthodomus (Fig. 53). The bases
of the columns of the peristyle rested on square plinths, features
never found in the earlier Greek temples (except at Ephesus), as
they would have interfered with the free passage round. One or
two of the capitals of the peristyle colmnns and the capital of one
of the antae are in the British Museum. The anta capitals, as in
most Asiatic examples, differ on front and sides, the front having
superposed carved mouldings while the sides are decorated with
* The Greek text says “ within the temple,” probably by error.

140

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

rinceaux and foliage in relief. The entablature at Priene still
adheres to the traditional Asiatic type, omitting the frieze, but
with very heavy dentils in the comice (Plate XLIX).

Though not the largest, the most important temple in Asia Minor
was the great temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus. The archaic
temple of the sixth century is stated to have been burnt in 356 b.c.
and was rebuilt immediately afterwards at a level 9 feet higher,
in still greater splendour, though
with a plan identical with that
of its predecessor, and borrow-
ing apparently from the earlier
temple the idea of the sculptured
columns, which are found only at
Ephesus. It was probably the
beauty of these sculptured decora-
tions which caused this temple to
be classed among the seven wonders
of the ancient world. The site of
the temple was discovered and
excavated by J. T. Wood in
1869-1874, and the remains were
brought over and placed in the
British Museum. Wood found
two of the columns of the peris-
tyle of the north and south flanks
in situ, about 100 feet run of the
lowest step of the platform on the
■0, „ 0 ip y 30 y y north side, and the foundations of

Fig. 53. — The Temple of Athena ^ great portion of the rest of the
AT Priene. structure, which, in combination

with Pliny’s statements, shows
that the temple was octastyle and dipteral, with a pronaos
ceUa, and opisthodomus (Fig. 64). The chief problem to be
settled is the arrangement of the hundred and twenty-seven
(probably reaUy one hundred and seventeen) columns mentioned
by PHny, and particularly of the thirty-six of these that were
sculptured. The conjectural restoration by Murray, based on
a long study of the sculptured drums (Plate L) and square
sculptured pedestals, which form so important a part of the remains
m the British Museum, has long been accepted by both English

WEST FRONT OF THE LATER TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS AT EPHESUS (RESTORED BY HENDERSON).

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

141

and foreign archaeologists.* According to this, there were only-
one hundred columns on the exterior, both fagades being octastyle
and the flanks having twfenty columns, the whole being dipteral ;
among the hundred columns are counted the two columns in-antis
both in the pronaos and in the opisthodomus. But Fergusson
had pointed out that there
were probably nine columns
on the rear fa9ade, and
Lethaby has shown that
there were probably three
rows of columns across the
main fagade ; with these
modifications, the number of
peristyle columns is increased
by ten, while the opistho-
domus was probably tristyle
rather than distyle in-antis,
and the pronaos was really
much deeper than Murray
had shown it, not merely
with one but rather with
four pairs of columns ; the
total number thus rises to
one hundred and seventeen. f
The circumstances are similar
with regard to the sculptured
columns. Assuming that
the level of the platform on
which the peristyle rested
would coincide with the tops
of the square pedestals,

Murray placed eight of the
latter on each fagade, with only four steps below them, these four
steps being carried round the entire structure ; an additional flight

Fig. 64. — ^The Later Temple of
Artemis at Ephesus. (Restored by
1 , Lethaby and Dinsmoor.)

* Murray’s restoration was illustrated in the second edition of this work,
t In the work published by the British Museum in 1908, dealing with
the archaic temple (which had the same plan), the total number of one
hundred and twenty-seven given by Pliny was obtained by the subterfuge
of counting the internal columns of tiie celk. which seems out of the question.
It is preferable to adopt the recommendations of Fergusson and Lethaby,
and also to assume that Pliny (or his mediae-vai copyists) wrote by mistake
CXXVII for CXVII.

142

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

of nine steps, required in order to reach the level of the stylobate,
was placed between the first and second rows of columns at the
east and west ends, but was not continued along the flanks, where
the columns rest rather on a solid podium in the Etruscan manner.
The thirty-six sculptured columns were then placed with sixteen on
these square pedestals,* sixteen resting directly on the pavement
in the second row on each fa9ade, and four in the pronaos and
opisthodomus. But it is preferable to carry the steps uniformly
round all four sides of the temple (Plate L)t and to raise
the square sculptured pedestals and place
them on the same level as the circular
sculptured drums, that is, on the stylobate,
so that the pedestals as well as the drums
must be counted among the thirty-six
columnae caelatae cited by Pliny. Thus
the sculptured drums might have been
only sixteen in number, being confined to
the first two rows on the main west
fa9ade ; these, however, must have been
placed on regular Ionic bases and not
directly on the pavement. And the square
sculptured pedestals would have been used
as suggested by H. C. Butler on the
analogy of the temple at Sardis, only in
connection with the pronaos and opistho-
domus, where they would have supported
smaller Ionic columns with their bases at
a higher level ; the four columns before
the pronaos and the five before the opistho-
domus (forming in each case a sort of prostyle portico), as weU
as the eight columns between the walls of the pronaos and the
three columns in-antis in the opisthodomus, a total of twenty,
would have been so treated. The architects of this temple were
Paeonius and Demetrius, both of Ephesus.

Another colossal temple dedicated to Artemis in this neigh-
bourhood was that at Sardis, also known as the temple of Cybele,

* The raising of the Columnae caelatae on the square pedestals was
suggested many years ago by Fergusson.

f This restoration is shown as a substitute for that of Murray ; but it
^ to be understood that the sculptured drums and pedestals should not
be superposed as here indicated.

Fig. 65. — ^The Temple
OF Artemis Cybele
AT Sardis. (After the
restoration by Butler.)

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

143

which was completely excavated by H. C. Butler in 1910-1914,
representative members of the columns being placed in the Metro-
politan Museum in New York. Again octastyle, with twenty
columns on the flanks, the scheme was however not dipteral but
pseudo-dipteral, at least in part ; for on the flanks the interval
between the columns and the ceUa wall is equal to two inter-
columniations, as if the inner row of columns had there been
omitted (Fig. 56). On the fa 9 ades there is an inner row, forming
a prostyle arrangement before the pronaos and opisthodomus,
and coming directly behind the outer rows ; it is among these
inner columns that we find the square pedestals, left in block
form and clearly intended to be sculptured, supporting Ionic
columns of a smaller size, which form the best analogies for the
treatment at Ephesus (Plate XLVIII). The Ionic capitals of the
exterior were specially admired by Cockerell ; some of these are
wonderful works of the fourth century, while others are coarse
imitations made during the Roman repairs in the first century a.d.

Paeonius of Ephesus, one of the architects of the temple of
Artemis in that city, was employed together with Daphnis of
Miletus to build the temple of ApoUo at Didyma (Branchidae) near
Miletus ; probably the work was undertaken at about 334 b.c.,
though Strabo seems to imply that it was rebuilt shortly after
the destruction of the archaic temple by Xerxes, a statement
which does not agree with the character of the remains. It was
one of the largest temples in Asia Minor, so large that, according
to Strabo,* they were unable to roof it ; in other words, the cella
was hypaethral, one of the few examples about which there is no
doubt, though, curiously enough, Vitruvius does not refer to it.
The temple was dipteral, and unique in that the fa9ades were
decastyle ; on the flanks were twenty-one columns, so that
including the twelve columns in the deep pronaos the total number
was one hundred and twenty (Fig. 66). The temple was remarkable
not only for its size but also for its design. Under the columns,
as at Priene and Ephesus, were employed square plinths, not-
withstanding the great projections which such plinths had diagonally
when the lower diameter of the column was as great as 6 feet 6

* Strabo says, " In after-times the inhabitants of Miletus built a temple
which is the largest of all, but which, on account of its vastness, remains
without a roof, and there now exist, inside and outside, precious groves
of laurel bushes.” Its dimensions were in reality exceeded by
those of the archaic temple at Samos.

144

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

inches. In the bases of the principal fagade there is considerable
diversity of design, the ten bases being arranged in pairs symmetrical
with respect to the central axis ; only the outermost bases are
of the normal form, the first and the third from the centre sub-
stituting a round plinth for the upper torus, while the second
and fourth from the centre substitute a plinth for the disk with the
two scotias. But the first and
third from the centre are
further differentiated by having,
in the latter case, the Attic
profile with a scotia and a
lower torus instead of the disk
with two scotias, below the
round plinth ; and the second
and fourth are again differen-
tiated in that the plinth which
takes the place of the disk is
round in the fourth and
dodecagonal in the second, the
latter having each face panelled
and decorated within with
conventional foliage, or in one
case with a figure riding a sea-
horse (Plate LI). The round
plinths and the torus mould-
ings are also richly carved, with
maeanders, imbricated patterns
of laurel leaves, and anthemion
designs. In this exuberant
richness of ornament at the
bases of the columns the archi-
tects would seem to have
attempted to rival, though
in another direction, the famous columnae caelatae of Ephesus.
Analogous is the treatment of the capitals of the fa9ade, with
busts of Apollo and other divinities protruding from the volutes
(Plate XLIX), and with a buU's head at the centre ; the style of
these heads bears so strong a resemblance to the sculptures
of the Great Altar at Pergamum, built by Eumenes II
(197-159 B.C.), as to suggest that the upper portions of the

Fig. 56. — The Temple of Apollo
AT Didyma.

(Restored by Wiegand).

PLATE LI.

SCULPTURED DRUM FROM THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS
AT EPHESUS (BRITISH MUSEUm).

SCULPTURED BASE FROM THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO
AT DIDYMA (lOUVRe).

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

J45

temple were being worked at this late epoch. This is in accord
with the design of the ordinary Ionic capitals at Miletus, which
seem considerably later than the capitals at Ephesus. In the
entablature was inserted a frieze, sculptured with heads
of Medusa ; but by the time that the work was abandoned,
early in the Roman imperial epoch, only the dentil course of the
cornice had been laid, and the temple apparently permanent!}'
lacked its cornice and pediments.

The pronaos, as has been said, was very deep, and this was
followed by an antechamber, sometimes thought to have been
the Chresmographion where the oracles were delivered ; on either
side were stone staircases, carried between walls. Though a doorway
opened from the pronaos into the antechamber, there was no
direct communication between them ; the threshold is about
6 feet high. Instead, small doorways on either side give access
to descending tunnels which pass below the winding staircases
mentioned above, and lead do-wn to the cella, which really formed
an open court with the pavement 14 feet below the stylobate
of the peristyle. The walls of the cella were decorated with
immense pilasters, 6 feet wide and 3 feet deep, resting upon a
podium, so that their bases were at a level about 6 feet higher
than those of the peristyle. Thus the height of the pilasters,
including capital and base, was a httle less than that of the peristyle
columns. The capitals of the pilasters were very varied in design
(Plate LII), though they are all of the cradle or sofa volute type
which is so characteristic of work of this period in Asia Minor, the
vertical volutes being connected across the bottom of the capital,
and the enclosed panel decorated with fohage and animals ; and
between the capitals ran a band sculptured with griffins and lyres.
There were nine pilasters on each side, and three at the west end,
besides the responds at each comer. At the east end of the cella,
separating three entrance doorways, were two semi-detached
columns ranging with the pilasters, but with Corinthian capitals
which are more fully developed than any other examples hitherto
noted (Fig. 57) ; the spirals in the centre of each face, carrying
the palmette, are, however, too small and leave too much of the
surface of the bell uncovered. Access to these three doorways,
and through them to the antechamber behind the pronaos, was
gained only by means of a great flight of twenty-two steps, 53 feet
in width, leading up from the great court. Near the back of the cella

146

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

are the foundations of a shrine, measuring 28 by 30 feet, which has
recently been found to have had the form of a little prostyle
tetrastyle Ionic temple ; the anta capitals were decorated with a
winged figure at the centre and a leaf ornament on either side.
In this shrine was placed the bronze figure of Apollo, which was
brought back by Seleucus from Ecbatana at about 295 b.c., after
having been carried off by Xerxes.

Even more imposing in scale, though executed with the com-
parative simplicity of the Doric order, was the portico added at

this time to the south fac^ade of the temple of unusual plan already
mentioned, the Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis (Fig. 50 ; Plate
LVIII) . The work was executed at about 320 B.c. by Philon of
Eleusis, and assumed the form of a prostyle dodecastyle portico
with two intercolumniations on either flank, the columns being
6 feet 6 inches in diameter, the whole frontispiece being crowned
by an enormous pediment.

*****

Structures other than temples began in this period to assume
more varied forms than had hitherto been the case. Particularly

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

147

notable, for instance, are the circular buildings, known as tholoi,
erected within the precincts at Epidaurus, Delphi, and Olympia.
The rotunda (tholos) at Epidaurus was the most beautiful and
perhaps the earliest of these examples, and is stated by Pausanias
to have been built by Polyditus the Younger, who also designed
the theatre. The building (Fig. 58) consists of a circular cella,
with an external peristyle of twenty-six Doric columns, and inside
a circle of fourteen Corinthian columns, standing free from the wall,
with extremely beautiful capitals (Plate LII), showing a marked
advance on that at Bassae, which preceded them by perhaps
eighty years. Of the remains sufficient have been found to permit
a conjectural restoration ; but it is more probable that the roof
was broken into two slopes, rising from the peristyle cornice to
the wall and then from the wall in one
conical slope to a central finial (c/. Fig. 59),
instead of having a simple conical form, or
the double slope with a central impluvium
which is represented ha some restorations.

Next in date is the tholos at Delphi (Plate LI 1 1,)
designed by a certain Theodorus of Phocaea,
with twenty Doric columns on the exterior is,

(Plate LIV), and ten Corinthian columns, with the^Tholos at
variegated capitals directly imitated from Epidaurus.
that at Bassae, placed closely against
the inner face of the ceUa wall, though not actually engaged.
Last of all comes the circular building at Olympia, called the
Phihppeum, commenced by Philip in 339 b.c. and completed by
Alexander ; it consists of a circular cella surrounded by a peristyle
of eighteen Ionic columns (Plate XXIV P.H. ; Fig. 59). The
walls of the interior were decorated with semi-detached columns
of the Corinthian order, with an upper range above them
reaching to the roof ; the rafters of the roof were, according to
Pausanias, held together at the top by a bronze poppy, which
formed a central finial.

The best known example of the Greek Corinthian capital, though
a most peculiar type,* occurs in another circular building, the
choragic monument of Lysicrates (Plate LV), situated in the Street
of Tripods leading to theDionysiac theatre at Athens. It was erected

* Its modern fame is due chiefly to its early publication by Stuart and
Revett, at a time when no other pure Greek Corinthian capitals were known .

148

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

to support a tripod won during a choral victory in the theatre in
334 B.c. The monument consists of a high square podium, on
which stands the circle of six columns ; walls filling the intervals
between the columns give them the appearance of being semi-
detached, though in reality they are complete, the filling slabs
being worked with a hollow to fit them. The capital (Plate LV)
is higher than in other examples (of which we have already noted
six : Bassae, Tegea, Epidaurus, Delphi, Olympia, and Miletus),

Fig. 59. — The Philippeum at Olympia. (Rc.stored by Adler.)

being one and a half diameters. The bell subdivides too easily
into halves, the upper portion with the volutes not being
sufficiently connected with the lower half with its two rows of
leaves. The upper row of leaves of the acanthus shows between
the leaves eight-pefcalled flowers or rosaces, which, according to
Choisy, were copied from the heads of the pins which in a metallic
prototype fastened the leaves to the bell or core of the capital.
The lower row of leaves consists of the petals of some other plant,
frequently found in Greek decorative sculpture alternating with
the acanthus. There is no astragal between the capital and shaft.

THE THOLOS AT DELPHI.

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

149

but merely a sinking which suggests that it was applied in bronze ;
and below it the fluting of the shaft terminates in leaves, a treatment
sometimes found in votive columns. The entablature repeats
the mouldings of the Caryatid portico of the Erechtheum, but
has in addition a sculptured frieze. As this was the first example
of the Greek Corinthian order to be used externally, it was also
the first occasion on which a complete entablature was required ;
and, as the order had not been evolved from earlier constructional
forms in timber in the same way as in the Doric and Ionic orders,
it is apparent that the designer composed the entablature from
elements drawn from different sources, the banded architrave
and the frieze from the ordinary Ionic order as employed in Attica,
and the cornice from the peculiar entablature of Asiatic type as
employed in the Caryatid Porch of the Erechtheum. Thus was
developed a form of entablature, a combination of the Attic and
Asiatic Ionic types with the dentils much reduced in projection,
which was destined to have great influence on the future history
of the Corinthian, and even of the Ionic, style. The frieze, 10 inches
high, is carved with a representation of the story of Dionysus
and the pirates, who being thrown into the sea became meta-
morphosed into dolphins. The antefixes, which usually form the
terminations of the cover tiles, are here brought out over the
front of the corona and carved as a decorative cresting.
The roof, which is one block of marble, has its upper
surface carved in imitation of bronze scale tiles (Plate LIV).
In the centre rises the finial designed to carry the tripod,
and from the lower portion of it project three helices or scrolls,'
which it is thought supported figures or dolphins. In the
upper portion of this finial we recognise the further development
of a design which we shall see in the Acanthus Column at
Delphi ; here, in addition to the acanthus leaves, we find the
volute used to give variety and greater strength to the support
of the tripod.

Other choragic monuments of the period were not so elaborate.
A favourite type was that of the temple, which was adopted for
instance in the choragic monument of Nicias, of 319. b.c. This
consisted of a square ceUa with a prostyle hexastyle Doric portico,
and stood near the theatre of Dionysus ; but it was demolished at
about 250 a.d. to furnish material for the Roman gate to the

150

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

Acropolis, later to be described.* The other choragic monument
of the same year 319 b.c. was erected by Thrasyllus, as a fagade
enframing a cave just above the theatre (Plate LVII), crowned
by an attic with a statue of Dionysus now in the British Museum.

The temple type was also employed for the most elaborate
sepulchral monuments, as, for instance, the Nereid Monument
at Xanthus (Fig. 60), now in the British Museum. The lower
portion was a lofty podium or basement, decorated with superposed
bands or friezes of sculpture ; and the structure carried on the
podium was a reproduction of a small Ionic tetrastyle peripteral
temple, with the figures of Nereids between the columns, with
capitals imitated from those of the Erechtheum, with a sculptured
architrave like that at Assos but without a frieze, and with carved
pediments.

The most important of these sepulchral monuments was the
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, built by Queen Artemisia in memory
of her husband Mausolus, who died in 353 B.c. According to
ancient writers, the monument ranked among the seven wonders
of the world, owing to the eminence of the artists who were called
in to adorn it with sculpture ; their names, as given by Pliny,
were Bryaxis, Leochares, Timotheus, and Scopas. The architects
were Pythius, who also sculptured the marble quadriga on the
top (and, as we have seen, designed the temple at Priene), and
Satyrus. The site was excavated in 1856 by Sir Charles Newton,
and the remains discovered were deposited in the British Museum.
But long previous to their discovery the conjectural restoration
of the monument had been a favourite problem with many
architects ; and some of these restorations, including that of
CockereE, are now exhibited in the British Museum. Cockerell’s
restoration was based on the description given by Pliny and other
authors ; and, although the actual remains have proved it to be
incorrect in some of its features, its architectural design sets forth
the intimate acquaintance of its author with the principles of
Greek art.f Unfortunately Pliny’s description is so vague, and

* The old theory that it wa,s demolished at about 161 a.d. to leave space
for a road up to the Acropolis behind the new odeum of Herodes Atticus
must now be abandoned.

t The exceptions to be taken to Cockerell's design are the square piers
at the angles, the introduction of the attic storey, the rise and tread of the
steps of the pyramid and their design, and the question whether the cella
centre is in accord with Martial’s description of the Mausoleum as

hanging in open air.”

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

151

the remains found are comparatively so few, that the problem
is yet far from being solved. The lower portion of the structure
consisted of the lofty basement or podium, set in the foundation
cutting measuring 108 by 127 feet, discovered by Newton, and
roughly corresponding to the 440 feet mentioned by Pliny. Above

Fig. 60. — The Nereid Monument at Xanthus. (Restored by Niemann.)

this was the second element, the peristyle of thirty-six columns,
as PKny gives the number, necessarily including the angle supports
as is evidenced by the angle capital discovered ; he gives twenty-
five cubits as the height of the pteron, a dimension which accords
with the height of the order in the British Museum. With regard
to the arrangement of these columns there are two theories, each

152

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

of which has its adherents ; some place them in a single peristyle
large enough to cover the entire area of the foundation cutting,
while others, with less probability, contract the plan of the peristyle
by using dipteral colonnades. Even with respect to such details
as the form of the entablature there are two dissentient views,
depending on whether we insert the Amazon frieze or omit the
frieze altogether on the analogy of the temple at Priene
(Plate LIII).* The total height of 140 feel was attained by means
of a third element, a pyramid of twenty-four steps, crowned by the
quadriga ; but here again there are two types of solutions, some
(especially those with the contracted peristyle) representing a narrow
and lofty pyramid, while others use a lower pyramid with a more
gradual slope in accordance with the steps found in the excavations,
and are therefore obliged to supplement it with an attic above
the peristyle and a pedestal below the quadriga ; some compromise
by using the narrow type of pyramid above the wider peristyle
plan, by making it rise from an attic carried by the cella walls
rather than by the columns ; others again utilise the steps with
broad treads (which undoubtedly belong to the roof) for the lower
degrees of the pyramid, and raise the upper portion into the form
of a meta according to Pliny’s description by employing other
steep steps which were found on the site — but with a defect in
the abrupt change between the two slopes. t Another difficulty
is that of supporting adequately the pyramid, which Martial
describes as “ hanging in open air,” while Pliny gives dimensions
of 63 feet on the flanks, and a shorter width on the fronts, apparently
intended to apply to a cella within the peristyle, distant either
one or two intercolumniations behind the peristyle, at the choice
of the investigator. And into the restoration have to be worked,
furthermore, three different sculptured friezes, the numerous
decorative lions, and a host of statues including those of Mausolus
and Artemisia.

Though coming more within the range of sculpture than of
architecture, the marble sarcophagi found at Sidon by Hamdy

* Plate XLIX shows the restoration of the entablature as set up in the
British Museum.

f This is the case, for instance, in Stevenson’s restoration in the British
Museum; if the junction of the two sets of steps had been broken by plinths
and antefixes, as in Cockerell's attic storey, or, better still, by pedestals
carrying the famous lions, these would have masked the transition from the
low to the high pitch of the pyramid.

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE ir,:}

Bey, and^now in the Museum at Constantinople, are magnificent
examples of^the^decorative sculpture of the end of the fourth
century, and in consequence of their good state of preser\'ation
show the extent to which polychromy was emplo\'cd to enrich
the elaborately carved mouldings.

The favourite type of sepulchral monument in Attica at this
time was the vertical slab known as the stele. As an example we

Fig. 61. — Grave Monument of Dexileos at Athens.
(Restored by Kinch.)

may take one of the many family burial plots which lined the
Sacred Way from Athens to Eleusis, that of Dexileos (Fig. 61).
The subordinate stelae are still of the narrow type used in the
archaic period (Fig. 35), but with much more elaborate acroteria
in which the acanthus plays a great part. The main monument,
however, is of a much broader type, giving more scope for relief
sculpture. The scenes represented in these sepulchral reliefs are
generally of a domestic character, as, for instance, the husband
bidding adieu to his wife who is called away to another world ;

154

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

but the stele of Dexileos is unusual in representing a scene of
battle.

Among the smaller votive monuments of this period, erected in
the sacred precincts, the most interesting, apart from those in the
form of simple columns, is the Acanthus Column found at Delphi
(Fig. 62), dating from the very beginning of the fourth century.
The lower part of the shaft rises from a calyx of three large ribbed
leaves, and at the base of every drum the upward
movement of the shaft is interrupted by a girdle
of acanthus leaves ; from the upper portion of the
shaft spring three other acanthus leaves which
support Caryatid figures carrying a tripod. The
great projection of these leaves, and the vigour
shown in their carving, testify that as a decorative
feature the foliage of this plant must have been
intensively and rapidly developed since its adoption
a few years previously.

Among the more important accessories in the
temenos of a great temple were also the stoas or
colonnades which afforded protection to the visitors
or pilgrims to the shrine. The Echo Colonnade or
Stoa Poecile at Olympia (Plate XXIV, EH), so
called on account of the paintings which decorated
the wall at the back, stood on the east side of the
Altis, and consisted of a double corridor 331 feet

Fig. 62. — The
Acanthus
Column at
{Delphi.
(Restored by
Homolle.)

long, with columns of the Doric order outside, and
an inner range of Ionic or Corinthian columns to
assist in canying the roof. At Epidaurus these
colonnades, of which there were two ranging along
the north side of the enclosure, were of the Ionic
order, and one of them was in two storeys. Their

use here was of greater importance, in that they
served as the temporary refuge of the patients who came to the
shrine of Asclepius to be healed of their ailments.

A structure analogous in form, but totally different in purpose,
was the Arsenal of the Piraeus near Athens. Although the building
no longer exists, having been burnt by Sulla in 86 b.c., the descrip-
tion of it given in the specifications, which were found in 1882,
engraved on a slab of Hymettian marble, is so clear and distinct
that we know more about its construction than if its actual remains.

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

165

rather than the inscription, had been found. It is of particular
importance on account of the light that it sheds on the question
of the construction of the Greek roofs, about which so little is
known, owing to the complete destruction by fire or otherwise
of all the timber therein employed. The arsenal was built between
340 and 330 b.c. from the designs of Philon, the architect of the
fagade of the Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis ; and it was intended
for the storing of the rigging, sails, ropes, etc., of the Athenian
navy. It was 430 feet long by 59 feet wide, and consisted of a

Fig. 63. — ^Transverse Section of the Arsenal at the Piraeus.
(Restored by Dorpfeld.)

central passage and two aisles (Fig. 63). The former, 21 feet
6 inches wide, served as a covered promenade ; and in the aisles,
separated from the nave by stone Ionic columns 32 feet in height
and by screen walls with gates in them, were stored the sails and
ropes, with galleries above for the smaller materials. The columns,
thirty-five in number on each side, carried huge beams (32 inches
wide by 29 inches high) longitudinally as architraves, serving
also as purhns of the roof ; and they also carried transverse beams
of the same dimensions across the central passage.l On the centre
of each of these transverse beams rested a block of timber which
supported the ridge beam (22 J inches by 17| inches). Resting

156

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

on this ridge beam, on the longitudinal architraves, and on the flank
walls were rafters 12 inches wide and 8 inches high, and 16 inches
apart. Across the rafters were laid battens, 6^ inches by 1|- inches,
and inches apart, carrying the close boarding on which the
Corinthian terracotta tiles were laid, bedded in mud. From
this description it follows that the trussing of timber in roofs was
unknown to the Greeks, and that the rafters were carried by the
ridge beam and by other direct vertical supports.*

Another Greek secular building which must here be mentioned
is the Thersilion or Assembly Hall of the ten thousand Arcadians
at Megalopolis (Fig. 64). The plans, published in 1890 by the

Hellenic Society, show
that the hall covered
an area of 35,000
square feet, and that
the columns which
carried its roof were
ranged in lines parallel
to three sides of the
hall, and furthermore
on the intersections
of lines radiating
towards the tribune,
so as to form the least
possible obstruction
to the view from any
portion of the hall.
No architectural
features of the interior were found, but the bases of the columns
which remained in situ proved by their respective levels that
the floor of the assembly hail sloped downwards towards the
tribune. Behind the columns were two entrances on each of
the three sides as in the similar Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis ;
but on the fourth side was a great frontispiece, a prostyle
portico with fourteen colunms on the front, facing towards
the theatre.

The plan of the theatre, by the fourth century b.c., had become

* Further evidence of the same is g^iven in the Lycian, Phrygian, and
Etruscan tombs, where are found reproductions of timber roofs carved in
stone.

Fig. 64. — The Thersilion at Megalopolis.
(Restored by R. S. Weir.)

THE PANATHENAIC STADIUM AT ATHENS.

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

157

well established and had assumed a monumental form. Most
typical, and also one of the best preserved, is the example erected
by Polyclitus the Younger (the designer of the tholos) at Epidaurus
(Fig. 65 ; Plate LVI). Three parts may be specified — the
orchestra, the cavea or auditorium for the spectators, and the scene
building. The orchestra forms at Epidaurus a complete circle, but in
other examples was gradually encroached upon by the bringing for-
ward of the scene building ; in the centre the altar of Dionysus was
still retained, and here took place most of the action of the play.

Fig. 65. — The Theatre at Epidaurus. (Restored by Dorpfeld.)

The cavea at Epidaurus has a diameter of 415 feet ; at Megalopolis
it was 474 feet, forming the largest known auditorium ; at Athens
the maximum width was only 364 feet, though the plan is very
irregular (not being bounded by the usual semi-circle) and in
the upper portions the radius was increased to 276 feet, giving
a tremendous depth. The seats are divided by radiating stairways
into wedge-shaped groups or cunei. The seats immediately
round the orchestra are sometimes in marble, with backs shaped
like the chairs of the early Victorian period ; as in the theatre
of Dionysus at Athens (Plate LV), where there were sixty-
seven marble chairs inscribed with the names of the priests

168

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

or other dignitaries who occupied them (Plate LVII). Once
(or sometimes twice) in its total height the cavea is sub-
divided by a horizontal passage known as the diazoma. The
form and purpose of the scene building are contested subjects ;
but it would appear that it stiU continued to form merely a
back scene for the action, though it now assumed a permanent
architectural form, an unvaried street or palace scene. Thus
at Megalopolis the portico of the Thersilion originally served
also as the back scene of the theatre, though subsequently a
lower colonnade, called the proscenium, was erected before it.
This colonnaded proscenium, sometimes with projecting pavilions
(parascenia) on either side, now became the characteristic feature
of the scene buildings ; at Epidaurus it was faced with three
quarter detached columns, and its roof formed a narrow platform
11 or 12 feet high, reached by ramps on either side, and probably
used only for action purporting to take place at high levels, on house
tops, walls, or mountains. Among smaller details, it may be noted
that at Epidaurus these semi-detached columns are Ionic, and that
in their capitals, as at Bassae, the volutes are bent anglewise
at the comers.

The stadium or racecourse was an elongated space 600 to 900
feet long, the site for which, like that of the theatre, was
selected close to the side of a hill or between two hills, so
that, even at the worst, it would be necessary to build up
an embankment only on one side. At Messene it was placed
in a narrow valley, and at the end where the goal was
placed there were colonnades in the form of a semicircle.
The oldest stadium in Greece was probably that at Olympia
(Plate XXIV, ST), 630 feet long, but no traces antedating the
fourth century have been discovered; the entrance to it from
the Altis is through a passage 100 feet long and 13 feet wide,
carried under the west embankment of the stadium, and covered
over with a stone barrel-vault, which is probably the result of an
alteration in the third century, but important as evidence that the
Greeks were well acquainted with the arched vault, and employed
it where, as in this case, it received ample abutment from the
ground on each side. The Panathenaic stadium at Athens
(Plate LVI), 670 feet long, was constracted of poros stone by the
legislator Lycurgus, who was also responsible for the erection of the
Athenian theatre in stone at about 340 b.c. ; it was only long

of Thrasyllusj
-opolis Wall.

THE BEGINNING OF THE DECADENCE

169

afterwards, at about 160 A.D., that the stadium was reconstructed
in Pentelic marble by Herodes Atticus.*

For horse and chariot racing a longer course was provided,
known as the hippodrome ; but of such buildings of the Greek
periods no actual remains have been discovered.

The gymnasium of this period was still informal in plan ; the
most notable example is that at Delphi (Plate II) well adapted to
the natural site, with a racecourse 600 feet long on an upper
terrace, and baths (both shower and plunge) and a court for
wrestling below it.

♦Plate LVI shows this stadium of Herodes Atticus as rebuilt for the
Olympic Games of 1896,

Chapter VII

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN
PHASES

The monuments which testify to the greatness of Greece even
in her decline may best be studied, hke those of the fourth century,
in Asia Minor. For after the supremacy of the mainland cities
had been shaken by Philip of Macedonia at the battle of Chaeronea,
his successor, Alexander, turned to Asia, and routed the Persian
hosts at the Granicus (334) and Issus (333). Now was built up a
Greek empire of which Greece proper formed but a small province ;
the capital lay at Babylon, and the boundaries extended eastward
to India and Turkestan, and southward to Nubia. After
Alexander’s death in 323 b.c. this vast territory was broken up
into separate kingdoms ruled by his generals and their successors.
For the moment, at any rate, the course of civilisation receded
eastward ; and it is largely in these oriental kingdoms, carved out
of Alexander’s empire, that we must study the last phase but one,
an architecture which, imitating the classical styles of the true
Hellenic lands, is therefore termed Hellenistic.

This political reconstruction of the Greek world was not long
suffered to remain undisturbed. From two quarters arrived
external forces to dispute the supremacy of the eastern Mediter-
ranean ; and the Greeks successfully repulsed the Gallic invasions
only to fall before others whom they likewise regarded as Bar-
barians, the Romans. The westward march of empire could no
longer be arrested.

The Romans had come into contact with the Greeks at the very
beginning of the Hellenistic period. The rich Greek colonies of
southern Italy and Sicily tempted the rapidly expanding state
on the Tiber ; and as early as 282 b.c. began the annexation of
the Greek cities of Italy, and then, with the first Punic war (264-
241 B.c.) began the second stage, the penetration of Sicily. The
second Punic war (218-202 B.c.), furthermore, brought the Romans

THE PRECINCT OF DEMETER AT ELEUSIS (RESTORED BY GANDY-DEERINO).

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 161

into the East ; the four Macedonian wars (215-146 b.c.) left
Macedonia a Roman province and, though the Greek leagues
had at first been the allies of Rome against Macedonia, their
continual quarrels invited Roman intervention, and they were
crushed by Lucius Mummius (146 B.c.), Corinth being destroyed
as an act of terrorism and Greece itself annexed to the province
of Macedonia. The war against Antiochus (192-189 B.c.) brought
the Romans for the first time into Asia, where the Greek kingdoms
one by one fell under western sway, Pergamum through the bequest
of its last king (133 b.c.), and others, as Syria (63 b.c.) and Egypt
(30 B.c.). through conquest.

The last phase of Greek architecture, then, is that of the period
when the free states had been subjugated or otherwise annexed
to Rome, and which we may therefore call Graeco-Roman. During
this epoch, we are not concerned with such outlying regions as
Syria and Egypt, to which Greek civilisation was brought only
by the Hellenistic kings, and which soon lost their Greek veneer,
taking on a new veneer, that of their Roman conquerors. But
in Greece proper, in Asia Minor, and in parts of southern Italy
and Sicily, the ingrained Hellenism of the native Greek inhabitants
lived on, either affecting the architecture of the new rulers, or
even continuing to produce architecture which might be called
Greek. Shiploads of paintings, statues, and decorative archi-
tectural pieces were sent to Rome ; but to compensate for this,
the Roman emperors carried on a vast amount of architectural
activity in Greece and Asia Minor, and these late buildings, on
which Greek artists would seem to have been invariably employed,
are just as much a part of the development of Greek architecture
as are their more purely Hellenic predecessors.

« * ai: «

At this period the erection of Doric temples was virtually aban-
doned ; and Vitruvius reflected the sentiments of his immediate
predecessors, the Hellenistic architects of Asia Minor, in his
reference to the assertion of " some ancient architects that sacred
buildings ought not to be constructed of the Doric order.” In
the western colonies we hear only of a few examples on a very
small scale. The small prostyle temple " B ” at Selinus is an
instance ; the order was clearly Doric, and the remarkable Ionic
capital shown in Hittorff's restoration has been recognised as
belonging probably to a votive column. Likewise the little temples

162

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

of Asclepius at Acragas (Fig. 66) and of Serapis at Taormina might
be described as distyle in-antis, though they show also at the rear
a false portico of two semi-detached Doric columns between antae ;
the employment of the semi-detached columns here was undoubtedly
inspired by the great temple of Zeus Olympius at Acragas, though
it was not warranted by their small dimensions. The dates of
these temples seem to lie between 240 and 210 b.c. On the Greek
mainland we hear of one or two more ambitious projects, but
sometimes they came to nothing, as was the case with the temple
of Zeus at Lebadea in Boeotia — even this being an undertaking
of the Asiatic monarch Antiochus IV. And while in the Ionic area
we find one or two Doric intruders, such as
the temple of Athena Polias and that of
Dionysus at Pergamum, yet these are of
small size and show numerous modifications
due to Ionic influence, such as the excessively
slender proportions (which in the frieze led
to the multiplication of the number of
trigl5^hs), the use of Ionic fluting, the sub-
stitution of a series of mouldings for the
Doric echinus, etc. In other words, the
supremacy had passed entirely to the Ionic
and, as we shall see, also to the Corinthian
style, which now for the first time began
to be employed on the exteriors of temples.

Sometimes, however, we meet evidences of
a more archaeological tendency, particularly
in the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines,
when there were attempts to revive the
purity of the classical styles. An instance in point is the Uttle
temple of Artemis Propylaea at Eleusis, of which the forms look
as if they were designed long before the reign of Marcus Aurelius,
its probable date. The plan of this temple is of special interest
because, while formerly restored as distyle in-antis at both ends,
it has now been proved to have been amphiprostyle like so many
of the small Ionic temples.

The most important architect of the period was Hermogenes,
who codified the rules for the Ionic order in books which were
frequently consulted by the Romans. One of his works, at about
150 B.C., was the temple of Dionysus at Teos, a small hexastyle

# m

Fig. 66. — ^The Temple
OP Asclepius at
Acragas.

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 163

peripteral example, with eleven columns on the flanks ; he is
reported to have designed this in the Doric style, subsequently
altering it to the Ionic. The bases and capitals are of poor design ;
the tendency of the Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman periods was to
raise the carved echinus of the capital more and more, so that
it ultimately ranged with the top of the second convolution of
the volute (compare Plates XLIII and LX), and in this case
disappeared entirely under the baluster side of the cushion. But
the most remarkable in-
novation of Hermogenes
was, according to Vitru-
vius, his plan of omitting
the inner row of columns
in the temple of Artemis
Leucophryene at Mag-
nesia - ad - Maeandrum,

Fig. 67. — ^Temple of
Artemis Leucophryene

AT Magnesia-ad- Fig. 68. — ^Temple of Apollo Smintheus

Maeandrum. (Smintheum) in the Troad.

making it pseudo-dipteral {Fig.67) ; for in the fifth century this
temple had been dipteral. The new temple was octastyle, with
fifteen columns on the flanks, and, like the temple at Ephesus, was
raised on a lofty platform ; the inner building has the usual pronaos,
ceUa, and opisthodomus. Another fine example is the temple
of Apollo Smintheus in the Troad, again octastyle pseudo-dipteral,
with fourteen columns on the flanks (Fig. 68) ; the capitals show
a further enrichment above the egg and tongue moulding. Almost

164

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

identical in plan is the temple at Messa in the island of Lesbos,
again octastyle pseudo-dipteral, with fourteen columns on the
flanks ; the purity of the Ionic capitals and bases recalls those
on the Athenian AcropoHs. Similar traditions were observed in
the Ionic temples of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias and of Zeus at
Aezani in Phrygia ; these two are of late date, but were executed
by Greek artists still working on ancient tradition, and so retain
a much greater purity of style than that found in most Roman
work. The capitals of the columns of the pronaos at Aezani
(Fig. 69) are decorated with a single row of acanthus leaves under
the volutes, showing therein the influence of the Roman composite

capitals.

The most nota-
ble of the Corin-
thian temples is
that dedicated to
Zeus Olympius
and situated in
the plain to the
south-east of the
Acropolis at
Athens. The tem-
ple was built on
the foundations of
an earlier Doric
structure founded
by the sons of
Pisistratus ; the
new building was commenced by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in
174 B.C., from the designs of the Roman architect Cossutius.
Penrose's researches in 1884 proved the temple to have been
octastyle, with twenty columns on the flanks (Fig. 70) ; its
dimensions on the stylobate were about 135 by 354 feet, and it
was built in the centre of a peribolus measuring 424 by 680 feet.
The temple was dipteral, with two rows of columns on each side
of the cella, and three rows across the front and rear, a total of
one hundred and four columns apart from any that may have
been inserted in the pronaos and opisthodomus. The structure
as designed by Cossutius was left incomplete ; and in 86 b.c.
some of the capitals and shafts, probably of monolithic columns

9. — Capital of Column in Pronaos of
Temple of Zeus at Aezani.

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 165

prepared for the cella, were transported by SuUa to Rome and
used to decorate the temple on the Capitol, thereby exercising a
profound influence on the Roman Corinthian style. The work
was resumed in the time of Augustus, but its completion and
dedication were reserved for Hadrian in 131 a.d. The temple is
one of those described by Vitruvius as hypaethral, but we are
left in doubt whether the whole of the ceUa was intended to be
left uncovered or only its eastern
portion ; and there is of course no
evidence that when completed by
Hadrian any portion of the temple was
hypaethral, because in the time of
Vitruvius the cella was still incomplete.

The diameter of the columns of the
peristyle is 6 feet 3f inches, and their
height is 55 feet 5 inches, giving a
relation of diameter to height as 1 to
8.77, inclusive of the square plinth, an
unusually solid proportion for the
Corinthian order (Plate LXIX).

According to Penrose, some of the
capitals (Fig. 71) belong to the design
by Cossutius, being much too pure in
style to have been executed under
Augustus, and stiU less in Hadrian’s
time ; the carving of the foliage re-
sembles more that of the tholos of
Epidaurus, than that of the arch near
the temple and the library both bmlt
by Hadrian. The capitals, however,
vary in execution, so that part of the
work would seem to be that of Hadrian,
cop 3 dng the original design.

There are other Corinthian temples in Asia Minor, such as the
one at Euromus (near Ayakli), which is hexastyle peripteral, with
eleven columns on the flanks ; sixteen of the columns are yet
standing. Some of these columns have tablets worked on them,
with inscriptions recording the names of the donors, as is also
the case on an isolated Corinthian column at Mylasa and on the
Ionic columns of the temple at Aphrodisias. Of a second temple

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Fig. 70. — Temple of Zeus
Olympius at Athens.

166

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

at Ancyra (Angora), dedicated to Augustus and Roma, only the
ceUa and pronaos remain, though it was once surrounded by a
hexastyle peripteral colonnade. A third example, of similar plan,
was dedicated to Antoninus Pius at Sagalassus. More unusual
was a pseudo-peripteral Corinthian temple at Cnidus, of uncertain
date.

An unusual plan, reminiscent of the tholos of the fourth century,
was that of the temple of Roma and Augustus on the Acropolis
at Athens (Figs. 51, L ; 72), a monopteral plan consisting of a

circle of nine Ionic
columns imitated
from those of the
Erechtheum, with
a diameter of only
23 feet, and with-
out a cella.

* * #

It was during
this period that the
approach to the
Athenian Acropo-
lis received its final
form. On the north
side, approximate-
ly balancing the
temple of Athena
Nike, was built the
lofty Pergamene
pedestal which eventually supported the chariot of Marcus Agrippa
(Plate XL VI). Later was erected the tremendous flight of marble
steps, 71 feet in width, which ascended in two flights ; the upper of
whidi was subdivided by a central ramp paved with marble, in-
tended for the beasts of sacrifice brought up in the procession which
rounded the comer of the bastion of Athena Nike and so attained the
landing halfway up the ascent. The marble steps led directly up to the
lowest step of the west fa9ade of the Propylaea (c/. Plate XLVI) ; at
the bottom, however, they originally seem to have been left open.
Here at the bottom of the flight was eventually built, at about
250 A.D., the new entrance discovered by Beule in 1852, and hence

Fig. 71. — Capital from the Temple of Zeus
Olympius ax Athens.

PLATE LX,

CAPITAL FROM THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS AT MAGNESIA
(BERLIN museum).

CAPITAL FROM THE LESSER PROPYLAEA AT ELEUSIS.

PLATE LX I

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 167

known as the Beule Gate (Plate I ; Fig. 51, M), built with material
taken from the choragic monument of Nicias.*

At Eleusis the sacred precinct of the temple was entered in Roman
times through two successive gateways known as the Greater
and the Lesser Propylaea. The latter were built first, by Appius
Claudius Pulcher, soon after 54 b.c. The plan differs from that
of other propylaea (Plate LXI) : there is a paved forecourt flanked
by two walls at the right and left of the entrance, with crowning
entablatures, j" whilst two columns outside the doorway and two
Caryatids inside it supported the roofs which merely sheltered
the entrance. ;|; The capital shown in Plate LX, of Corinthian type,
crowned one of the two outer columns, and is remarkable because
of the unique hexagonal plan
of the abacus and on account
of the richly carved ornament,
with winged horses at three
comers. On these rested a
mixed Doric-Ionic entablature,
carved with emblems of De-
meter (Plate LXI), cists and
wheat sheaves on the triglyphs,
rosettes and bucrania on the
metopes ;§ the combination of
Doric and Ionic forms illus-
trates the unsettled character
of the Corinthian order in the
period antedating the Roman
Empire, as described by Vitruvius. There are ruts formed by wheels
on the pavement, impl5dng that before the erection of the outer
Propylaea the precinct was accessible for chariots ; the central door-
way, through which these wheel mts pass, was closed by massive gates
as shown by marks on the pavement, while the lateral doorways
are of later origin. Afterwards were built the outer or Greater
Propylaea, exactly copied from the central building of the

Fig. 72. — ^Thb Temple of Roma and
Augustus at Athens.

* See p. 149.

t The detached Ionic columns resting on a podium about 4 feet 6 inches
high, the motive used in earlier restorations to line these flank walls, actually
have no relationship to the building,

t One of these two Caryatids is preserved at Cambridge University.

§ On the site was also found a portion of another Doric entablature,
comprising three triglyphs, on one of which is carved a bunch of ears of barley,
on the second a cist, and on the third the torches carried during the ceremonies.

168

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

Propylaea at Athens (again illustrating the archaeological tendencies
of the Antonine period), both in design and in size, except that the
hexastyle portico of the main front was raised on a platform of
six steps, while the central passage for processions was omitted
(Plate LVIII).

The propylaeum of the temenos of Athena at Priene is likewise
of late date, and has tetrastyle porticoes of the Ionic order in the
front and rear ; one of the capitals is in the British Museum.
A series of rectangular pier capitals of various sizes, formerly
supposed to have crowned piers inside the propylaeum,* have now
been recognised as statue pedestals and as terminal motives of
exedras. All are of the cradle type used in the fourth century

temples, and those
which J'were used as
statue pedestals have
an additional member
above the abacus to
serve as the plinth of
the statue (Fig. 73) ; in
the tops of these plinths
are sinkings in which
were leaded the tenons
below the feet of bronze
statues. Two of these
pedestal caps, and one
exedra termination,
are now in the British
Museum.

Aniong the structures erected in the sacred’enclosures were the
altars, which in these later periods were often^of^considerable
size, though beyond their foundations all traces of their design
have generally disappeared. Off the Great Altar of Zeus at
Pergamum, discovered by the Germans in 1880, sufficient remains
have been found to justify a conjectural restoration, at all events,
of its magnificent podium (Plate LXII). The altar was built by
Eumenes II (197-159 b.c.), on the second terrace of the acropolis
overlooking the valley of the river Selinus, and was raised on a

* Tliis restoration with internal square piers and flat pilaster strips on both
faces of the flank walls, a.s suggested by the Dilettanti expedition in 1812,
has no foundation in fact.

Fig.|73. — Capital of Pier Carrying a Statue
IN THE Temenos at Priene.

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 169

podium 17 feet 6 inches high, measuring in plan, on the lowest
step, 119 feet 6 inches by 112 feet 3 inches. Round the sides,
at a height of 8 feet 8 inches above the pavement of the terrace,
was a frieze 7 feet 6 inches high, carved in high relief,
representing the Gigantomachia, or battle of the Gods and Giants,
three quarters of which are now in the Museum at Berlin. In the
principal front, which was toward the west, was a fUght of steps
68 feet 2 inches wide, which rose between the wings of the podium
and led to the court of the altar. The court was surrounded by a
wall also carved with reliefs, but in this case of lower relief and on
the inner rather than the outer face. The inner face of the wall,
furthermore, had a portico of double Ionic columns carrying a
mere architrave ; while on the outside of the wall was an Ionic
peristyle, the columns supporting an entablature without a frieze,
and returned on each side of the steps above the wings of the
podium. In the centre of the court was the altar, of which portions
of the entablature are preserved.* Smaller imitations of this altar
were erected at Priene and Magnesia.

On the terrace above the altar at Pergamum, the Doric temple of
Athena PoHas was enclosed within a rectangular court, lined on
two sides with a colonnade or stoa in two storeys. Similar colonnades
were erected at Delphi, in addition to the archaic^Stoa of the
Athenians, being located outside the enclosure on the east and west
sides in order to shelter the pilgrims before their admittance to the
temenos (Plate XXV). At Delos similar colonnades flanked the
approach to the propylaea of the temenos, and on the north side of
the temenos was the Portico of Antigonus, known also as the Stoa of
the Homs because of the bulls’ heads on the triglyphs ; at the back
of this stoa, and entered from it, was a series of chambers. One
of the most remarkable buildings of this nature at Delos was the
Sanctuary of the Bulls (Fig. 74), which measures 210 feet long by
30 feet wide, with a tetrastyle portico at one end, and at the farther
end a hall at a lower level, to which one descended by a flight of

* The restoration proposed by the Germans, with the colonnades returned
across the top of the steps in front of the altar, would have masked the
latter, whereas tiie sacrifices were probably intended to be seen from the plain
below. Moreover, it does not accord with the representation shown on a
Pergamene coin struck in the reign of Septimius Severus (193-211 a.d.),
on which the altar, of simple design and of less height than the Ionic peristyle,
is shown standing clear in the centre. In the conjectural restoration by
Pontremoli, on the other hand, the peristyle is dwarfed by the immense
altar shown.

170

THE ARCHITECTURE'‘OF GREECE

steps, placed between two piers each decorated on one side with two
kneeling bulls as bracket capitals, while the other side of each
forms a half Doric capital.

Among the tombs of this period, we need refer only
to a few. The mausoleum type, inspired by the example at
Halicarnassus, was employed for the most monumental designs.

A tomb at
Mylasa, although
it belongs to the
Corinthian order,
was apparently
based on the
design of the
great Mausoleum,
and possesses the
three divisions of
podium, pteron,
and pyramid.
While it is of much
smaller d i m e n-
sions, the pyramid
still exists and in
a sense recalls

1 ^ ^ ^ ^

tirely supported

Martial’s descrip-
tion of its proto-
type, as it is en-

Fig. 74. — Sanctuary of the Buuls at Delos.
(Restored by Nenot.)

by the columns
and piers (Plate
LX II), the angles
being tied inside
by diagonal beams
of stone across the
four corners ; this

tomb therefore has sometimes served as an inspiration for restora-
tions of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, In consequence of the
great weight to be carried, there are square piers at the four comers,
and the intermediate supports consist of columns of elliptical plan
with narrow pilaster strips on each side. The so-called tomb of
Theron at Acragas, with a lofty podium, has Ionic columns at

DETAIL FROM THE GREAT

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 171

each corner with canted volutes, and with a bold palmette to fill
the gap between the volutes and the egg and tongue moulding,
as in some examples at Olympia, and also at Pompeii, where it
may well have been executed by Greek workmen ; the volutes
have far less projection than is found in the ordinary type of Ionic
capitals, so that it virtually constitutes a new design. Another
frequent t 3 rpe of tomb at this period was the tumulus ; an example
at Pergamum is of special interest because the chamber is covered
by two intersecting barrel vaults regularly constructed with stone
voussoirs, a notable protot 3 ^e of Roman construction ; and the
perfection of the execution in this tomb at Pergamum suggests
that this was by no means the first attempt.

In addition to the temple precincts, the towns now for the first
time begin to claim our attention ; for the earlier classical Greek
periods we have very little information, but in the great cities
of the Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman epochs now being uncovered
by the spade, particularly in Asia Minor, we see a very different
state of things from the prehistoric settlements of Troy and
Mycenae. Of the ty^pical arrangements of the Greek city, the clearest
evidence comes from Ephesus, Miletus, Priene, Assos, Delos,
Corinth, and Selinus.

To what extent the principle observed in connection with the
temple precincts, that of taking advantage of the resources of the
site, guided the Greeks in the planning of their towns, it is now
difficult to say owing to the paucity of the examples remaining.
Judging from remains found, all the principal points of advantage
would seem to have been devoted to the temples, which usurped
even the sites which in prehistoric times had been devoted to the
palaces. The earlier cities were extremely irregular, with winding
narrow streets laid out without regard for any consistent general
scheme. But under oriental influence the cities of Asia Minor
gradually developed a regular system of planning with all the
streets crossing each other at right angles. One of the most notable,
though smaller, examples of this is Priene (Plate LXIII), erected on
a steep slope, yet laid out on a regular gridiron plan, with its six
main streets running east and west, parallel to the slope of the
acropolis and so approximately level, but crossed at right angles
by sixteen sloping or stepped streets running north and south.
The whole is built on terraces on the south slope of the acropolis ;
the latter is so lofty that it was useless as a site for buildings,

172

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

and so'was left at one side but enclosed within the fortifications.
Though the streets form a perfect gridiron, the walls surrounding
the whole follow a very irregular plan, taking advantage of the
natural defences offered by the ravines which surround the plateau
on three sides, the acropolis forming the fourth. At the centre of
the city proper is the dominating precinct of Athena Polias, with
the agora and the civic buildings behind it ; to the south, against
the city wall, are the gymnasium and stadium, while to the north,
cutting into the slope of the acropolis, is the theatre. The streets
run through from wall to wall on the east and west, and from
the wall on the south to the steeper slopes of the acropolis on the
north, cutting the whole area into rectangular blocks each about
120 by 160 feet, and numbering, if there had been no interruptions
and irregularities, ninety-five in all. The agora, however, has a
length of three blocks and a width of two, dimensions in each
case about a fifth of the length and width of the city ; the main
east-and-west road, leading from the city's west gate, passed
through the northern edge of the agora, while the next road to
the south, leading from the " spring gate " at the east, likewise
passed through the south side of the agora, but since it lay in
general at a lower level it was interrupted by steps leading up
to the agora level, while all traffic was diverted behind the south
stoa ; the less important cross streets stopped short against the
back walls of the stoas and were not carried through. In the richer
residential districts of the city the blocks were divided into quarters,
giving house lots about 60 by 80 feet ; but nearer the walls the
divisions were smaller ; it may be calculated, on the basis of eighty
habitable blocks with an average of six houses per block, that
there- were less than five himdred houses in the entire town.

Far richer, and displaying the magnificence of the Graeco-Roman
period, was Ephesus, which was surveyed by Falkener and subse-
quently re-examined by Wood, who before he made his discovery
of the temple of Artemis devoted some time to researches in the
city ; the whole area is now being explored again by the Austrians.
There were in reality two cities, the old Ionic city founded at
about 1000 B.c. at the inner end of a deep bay (now silted up so
that the site is about four and a half miles inland),’*' on the east

* Pliny tells us that the sea once reached even to the temple of Artemis.
The amount of deposit brought down by the Caystrus river averages thirteen
inches per century, as may be calculated from the fact that the ground level
round the archaic " Croesus temple ” was SJ feet above sea level, while at
present it is 26 feet higher still.

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 173

slope of Mount Pion, and the Hellenistic city founded on the west
slope of the same mountain by Lysimachus at about 290 b.c., in
order to regain access to the receding harbour. The Ionic city has

never been found ;* the city of Lysimachus, with its revisions of
Roman and early Byzantine times, is the one which has been

the from

Fig. 76. — Pi-an of the City of Ephesus (after Falkener).

174

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

explored (Fig. 75),* and may here be described as an instance of the
splendour of the last phase. Although most of the actual remains
found are Roman or even early Byzantine, they are in many cases
built on Greek foundations or follow the general lines of the
Hellenistic city, and thus will serve equally well to illustrate
the plan, and the general emplo 3 mient of axes at right angles.
The main axis, running east and west from Mount Pion to the
harbour, is parallel to the higher Mount Coressus at the south ;t
and upon this axis, beginning at the port, lie the great baths or
Thermae, next the gymnasium (a great court with exedras at
north and south), the two structures having in common an entrance
from the south through a circular colonnaded court and a three
aisled " atrium ” ; and east of these, in turn, lie the great porticoes
of Verulanus, three-aisled porticoes surrounding a rectangular court
at about 650 by 800 feet.$ Along the south side of this complex
runs the straight street known as the Arcadiane, a third of a mile
in length, paved with marble for a width of thirty-six feet, with
colonnades seventeen feet deep on either side, with mosaic floors,
and shops in turn behind these ; at the west end is a monumental
gate opening on the port, at the east end a similar gate opening
on the place before the theatre, on the north side are the entrances
to the gymnasium and court of Verulanus, and in the middle of
the road is a notable columnar monument marking the cross-roads.
South of this street is another, parallel to it, with a segmental
frontispiece of superposed colonnades opening on the port.§ These
two streets open at the east into the great place before the theatre,
bounded at the north by an important building as yet unidentified,
at the south by the agora and by the road leading to the Magnesian
Gate, and on the east by the great theatre which cuts into the slope
of the hill. The great agora is an open area about 625 feet square,
surrounded with porticoes, and with a clock at the centre ; adjoining

* This plan by Falkener is here reproduced in spite of its many inaccuracies
and imaginative additions, because, in the absence of any other detailed plan
of the site, it will serve to give us a general idea of the monumental qualities
of the scheme. Some of the necessary corrections will be made in the text
and notes.

t These two mountains, rightly identified by Falkener, were interchanged
by Wood.

f These three structures are not accurately shown in detail by Falkener,
and the court of Verulanus is called the " agora civilis.”

§ Falkener’s plan shows in the place of these two streets a winding Byzantine
fortification wall, which must be eliminated from our conception of the ancient
city.

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 175

it are smaller courts, one at the west with a colossal nymphaeum
or fountain house,* and one at the south with the beautiful library
of Celsus. The road to the Magnesian gate, meanwhile, passes
south along the east side of the agora, then turns eastward between
some notable monuments, passing the odeum on the south slope of
Mount Pion, and finally reaches the Magnesian Gate, inside which
is another great gymnasium. On the north slope of Mount Pion
lies the stadium, with a square court surrounding a circular building
opposite its west end, and a monumental but unidentified structure
at the north ; between the latter and the stadium runs a colonnaded
road, with shops on either side, leading to the north-east gate.f
From the latter, as from the Magnesian Gate, roads lead eastward
and north-eastward to the temple of Artemis, distant respectively
three-quarters and one and one-quarter miles.

The colonnaded street is a feature which was found not only in
Greece and Asia Minor, but also throughout Syria ; the remains
now existing belong however to the Roman period. But under
the Seleucidae, from 300 to 167 b.c,, the town of Antioch in Syria
was laid out with wide colonnaded streets, crossing one another
at right angles, the principal street, from east to west, being about
two miles in length. The central avenue for carriage traffic was
open to the sky ; the side avenues, bordered with shops and houses,
had flat roofs over them. Similar protection from the fierce
tropical sun was afforded in Greece by the porticoes round the
market-places and in the temple enclosures.

The fortification walls surrounding the cities, hitherto con-
structed generally with a low socle of stone and a vast mass of sun-
dried brick, now began to assume more permanent architectural
form, as emphasis was laid on the decorative aspect of finely
worked masonry. Thus the walls of Cnidus are built with large
polygonal blocks fitting accurately together, with drafted edges
round each block. As these walls have a substructure of regular
squared masonry, it is obvious that they cannot be of the archaic
period when polygonal stonework was likewise the fashion ; so
that here the selection of this type of work (the idea of which
may have been taken from earlier walls) would seem to have been
due to the fact that the Greeks recognised its decorative value.

Among the important parts of the city were the agoras, which
were of two kinds: firstly, those where the people assembled

* The so-called " temple of Claudius,” of the Corinthian order.

t Wood called this the Coressian Gate.

176

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

to hear the decisions of their rulers ; and secondly, the places
of meeting for traffic and the transaction of public or private
business. In both cases the agora consisted of a large open area,
rectangular or trapezoidal, surrounded by colonnades or stoas.
In the former case it was enriched with temples, fountains and
statues ; and in the immediate vicinity of this agora were the
bouleuterion or senate-house, the prytaneum or guest-house, and
the basilica or hall of justice. The second type of agora had shops
and stalls round it, and a fountain in the centre, unless, as at
Elis, it served also for other purposes. From Pausanias’s description
we gather that the central space at Elis, known as the Hippodrome,
was used for training horses ; on the south side was the umpire’s
hall, a porticus with four rows of columns which divided it into
three aisles ; on the left was the umpire’s residence, separated
by a street from the agora ; on the right, similarly separated
by a street from the agora, was a second porticus, the Stoa of the
Corcyraeans, with a wall down the centre, against which stood
on either side pedestals and statues and a colonnade ; and on
the north or fourth side there was probably another colonnade.
Many cities, especially those in Greece proper such as Corinth,
had only a single agora in which all business was conducted. The
architecture of the agora was of the simplest kind, and depended
entirely for its effect on the ranges of columns which carried the
roofs of these stoas, as is well illustrated in the restoration of the
agora and stoas at Assos by Bacon and Koldewey (Fig. 76).
Although the columns were in stone, the roofs they carried were
always in wood, so that as the result of fires and earthquakes
only the foundation walls have generally been found.

In some examples, as at Aegae and Alinda and Assos, the agoras
were formed on the slopes of the hiUs, with artificial terraces
to support them. The stoa along the outer side could then be erected
in several storeys, the colonnade itself facing on the agora, and
beneath it one or two storeys which were probably utilised as
markets, though their primary object was the support of the
terrace. In these Hellenic substructures we have some of the
few examples of secular Greek architecture which are preserved
to any considerable height, and they are of considerable interest
as showing extreme simplicity of design with good solid construction.
The example at Alinda (Fig. 77) is 332 feet long by 44 feet wide.
On the lower storey is a corridor in the rear. 16 feet wide, giving

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 177

access to a series of rooms in the front, 16 feet deep, some of which
were lighted by windows and others through doorways opening
on to a terrace. The second or mezzanine storey consists of two long

178

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

corridors, divided by a series of piers with semi-detached Doric
columns facing one another ; this storey was lighted only by
narrow apertures at the top, in the front wall. The wooden
floor dividing these two storeys has disappeared. All this was
merely the substructure of the stoa proper : the front wall, 4 feet
thick and 28 feet high, is built in coursed masonry, with nineteen
courses varying in height apparently as the masons found the
blocks to hand, the face of each being worked to a convex curve.
The windows or smaller openings have deep architraves, the door-

ways voussoired arches ; and the whole is crowned by an ogee

string course. The stoa
above this substructure
had a row of columns
down the centre to sup-
port the ridge beam, and
on each side piers or
pedestals with a solid
stone parapet 5 feet high
between ; all this latter
portion is of Roman date.
The terrace below the
great basement is built on
the natural rock, which
was left unhewn. The
example at Aegae was
of similar design, with
a front of 270 feet,

Fig. 77. — Substructure of Stoa at
Alinda.

and a return wing 89
feet long ; again it was

three-storeyed, with two
storeys below the terrace level. It is true that these buildings
were only substructures of porticoes ; but in themselves they
make a fine monumental effect, their architectural embellish-

ment, if it may be called so, being confined to the varied heights
of the courses of masonry and to their bossed surfaces. The
Greeks apparently trusted to this finely-worked masonry alone
for the external aspect of many of their buildings.

In many cases these stoas contained superposed colonnades,
such as that built by Attalus II at Athens, with two storeys of
colurnns, arranged Jn two aisles, with a row of shops at the back

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 179

(Fig. 78). Hie lower columns on the facade were Doric, the upper
columns Ionic, the latter of elliptical plan in order to provide for
the abutment of stone parapets between them, and supporting a
mixed Doric-Ionic entablature ; the interior capitals were of the
Aeolic form [cf. Plate XXVI),

Among the buildings in the neighbourhood of the agora was,
in Athens, the well-known Tower of the Winds, mentioned by
Vitruvius as having been erected by Andronicus Cyrrhestes, the
date probably being the beginning of the first century B.c, It is
an octagonal tower of marble, 21 feet in diameter and 44 feet high
(Plate LXIV), still well preserved and forming not only a beautiful
feature but also one of the most characteristic buildings of Greece.
On each side was sculptured a relief representing the wind blowing
from the quarter facing it ; the two figures best seen in the illus-
tration represent, on the left, Sciron the north-west wind, emptying

Fig. 78. — The Stoa of Attalus at Athens.

a wide-mouthed jar, and on the right Zephyrus the west wind,
with his garment filled with spring flowers.

On the top of the roof was an octagonal Corinthian capital as a
finial,* supporting a huge bronze Triton working on a pivot, with
a rod in his hand which pointed toward the figure representing
the quarter in which the wind lay. Also on the faces of the tower
were sun-dials, and inside was. a water clock or clepsydra ; the
turret on the south side is supposed to have contained the cistern
which supplied the water. There were two entrances, formed by
two small distyle porches on two of the sides of the tower, now
ruined, though the pieces lie in the neighbourhood. Most notable
are their Corinthian capitals, of a special though not infrequent

* The Turkish turban shown in Hate LXIV has now been removed and
replaced by the original octagonal capital.

180

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

type ; the bell is decorated with a single row of acanthus leaves
round the base, and with an upper row of water leaves, there being
no volutes, while the abacus is perfectly square. Other examples
of capitals of the same design were found during the excavation
of the theatre of Dionysus.

The choragic monuments of the Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman
periods were generally less pretentious than in the fourth century.
Among the latest examples may be noted the isolated columns
with triangular Corinthian capitals above the theatre at Athens
(Plates III and LVII).

The theatre, during this period, passed through a considerable
evolution, from the Greek to the Roman type. At first, in the
Hellenistic examples, the action continued to take place upon the
orchestra and the scene building formed merely the permanent

scenery, though becoming more and more enriched (Plate LXIV).
Of this type were the theatres at Ephesus (4.9.3 feet in diameter).
Magnesia, Pergamum, Priene, and Assos. Gradually, however,
the orchestra was taken over for other purposes during the Graeco -
Roman period, and the action was driven back to a low stage,
which now appeared for the first time. In the reconstructed
theatre of Dionysus at Athens, as dating from the reign of Naro,
the stage was about 5 feet high ; and the stone proscenium was
in effect lifted to this level and thrust against the back wall of the
scene, where it formed the lowest of several tiers of decorative
colonnades, breaking forward and backward to form alternate
niches and pavihons. Throughout Asia Minor the Graeco-Roman
theatres now adopted this low stage and the colonnaded scene wall,
which became an important architectural feature ; or we even
find the high stage, as at Ephesus (Plate LXV ; Fig. 79). At Aezani

PLATE LXIV.

PLATE LXV.

the house of CLEOPATRA AT DELOS.

I'HE HELJ.ENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES isi

the plan is transitional between the Greek and the Roman theatre,
the auditorium being horseshoe in form, and there being no junction
between the walls of the auditorium and the scene buildings ;
the external diameter was 380 feet. The depth of the stage was
20 feet, and the back wall was decorated with a series of columns
standing 6 feet from the wall and carrying a second tier of columns,
the lower storey being of the composite order, and the upper
Corinthian ; these columns were arranged in pairs, with doorways
between them, the central doorway being flanked by columns of
greater size. More developed and in better preservation was the
theatre at Aspendus, built by the architect Zeno in the reign of
Antoninus Pius (138-161 A.D.). The auditorium had two ranges
of seats, twenty-one in the lower and eighteen in the upper, and
even retained an arcaded gallery running round the theatre at
the top. The back wall of the scene, with the three doorways
leading to the stage, still retained its tiers of entablatures and
pediments ; only the columns were missing ; the stage was roofed,
above the two colonnaded storeys, by means of cantilever trusses
rising from back to front. The exterior of the rear wall at Aspendus,
80 feet in height and 360 feet in length, has no other architectural
embellishment than that of its drafted and rusticated masonry
in courses of varying heights, showing the simplicity of treatment
which lasted in Asia Minor even down to Roman times, the only
Roman elements to creep in being the moulded archivolts of the
range of arches in the upper portion of the wall. Other examples
in Asia Minor are found at Aegae, Alinda, Hierapolis, Laodicea-
ad-Lycum, Myra, Patara, Perga, Pinara, Side, Telmessus, Termessus,
and Tralles, as well as at Segesta, Syracuse, and Taormina in Sicily.

An example of the Graeco-Roman type of odeum is that of
Herodes Atticus at Athens, erected on the south slope of the
Acropolis at about 161 a.d. Like the neighbouring theatre of
Dionysus, it is partly hewn out of the rock ; and it still preserves
its outer walls to a considerable height, and some of the marble
seats. The plan is merely that of the ordinary Graeco-Roman
theatre, but is slightly smaller in size ; the auditorium had a
diameter of 250 feet. It is said to have been roofed with cedar
wood ; and, though this statement might perhaps be regarded
as an allusion to the roof over the stage alone, it does not seem
probable that such a feature of ordinary occurrence would have been
stressed by an ancient writer ; nor does it seem physically possible

182

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

to have covered the entire area without internal supports, ol
which there is no evidence. Possibly the roof covered merely
the seats, even so having tremendous spans effected with canti-
levered trusses and chains, leaving the central portion to be
temporarily covered with an awning.

The stadium retained in later times the form which it had
assumed in the fourth century, the most important in the period
now under discussion being those which were erected in Asia Minor.
The Stadium at Ephesus was 800 feet long, cut in the hill on one
side and enclosed with masonry on the other ; it will be noticed
that an additional tier of seats was built on the hillside (Fig. 75),
which had incidentally the result of giving a more monumental
appearance to those who entered the town through the north-east
gate, though its real purpose, as shown in other examples, was to
take advantage of the natural slope on one side and to economise
in the amount of artificial embankment required on the other.
At Aezani, Magnesia, and Perga the stadia were built on level
ground, more in the Roman manner ; in the last of these a colon-
naded gallery 770 feet long was carried round above the seats.
The largest stadium, but built in Roman times, was that at
Laodicea-ad-Lycum, which was 1,000 feet long, with semi-circular
terminations at each end ; a similar arrangement with semi-circular
colonnades at each end existed at Aphrodisias.

The gymnasium now assumed a more formal plan than that of
the fourth century. The gymnasium proper was the open athletic
ground for rxmning, jumping, and throwing, while the name
palaestra was given to the enclosed structures wherein wrestling
and the like were practised. The palaestra at Olympia (Plate
XXIV PA) consisted of a large open court with a Doric peristyle
round it, and, on all four sides, a series of rooms for exercise under
cover, dressing rooms, baths, etc. ; of similar form was the palaestra
at Epidaurus (Fig. 80), and with such works Vitruvius's description
agrees fairly weU. Of the great gymnasium at Olympia (Plate
XXIV G), which must have been an establishment of considerable
importance, the great double-aisled porticus (660 feet long) on the
east side alone has been excavated. The later gymnasia would
appear to have been the prototypes of the Roman thermae, except
that they were built for gymnastic exercises of various kinds, the
baths being subordinated. Thus the so-called " gymnasium " at
Alexandria Troas is in reality a bath, which in actual date is Roman

THE HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES 183

(about 150 A.D.), showing the axial composition in a rectangular
block and the great vaulted halls which are characteristic of the
Roman thermae ; but in details it is far more closely related to the
Greek gymnasium than to the Roman thermae, the principal hall
containing a series of shower baths corresponding to those in the far
earlier gymnasium at Delphi. But other baths, as at Ephesus,
Corinth, etc., are of a more developed type rivalling in magnificence
the Roman thermae and showing a very great departure from
the gymnasium plan.*

In all the earlier
classical periods, in
contrast to the feeUng
in prehistoric times,
the dwelling houses of
the Greeks, even those
of the wealthy, seem
to have been unpre-
tentious fabrics.

Viewed from without,
they were of a simple
nature, being designed
only to shut out
“ the noise and rattle
of the town,” the
chambers facing in-
wards towards court-
yards, and, in the
more important
houses, on peristyles.

It must be remem- Fig. 80 . — The Pai-aestra at Epidaurus.
bered that the Greeks

of every period spent their time mostly in the open air and in their
places of public assembly, and that their chmate failed to develop
the home as a place of social intercourse. The writings of the
various authors suggest that the ordinary Greek house was simply
a residence to which the master of the house returned from his
vocation in the city to take his meals and sleep, and that during the

* The monumental Roman buildings at Ephesus identified by Falkener
and Wood as the gymnasia of the theatre and stadium are not sufficiently
explored to permit a description, and probably they were intended for very
different purposes.

184

IHE AKCHITKCTURE OF GREECE

daytime it was left in the care of the chief matron of the establish-
ment. It was not until the Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman periods
that the houses began to receive the attention commensurate
with that hitherto bestowed on other types of buildings. The
house seems generally to have been of one storey, with walls of
unburnt brick on a stone foundation ; windows were absent,
and the door opened on a comparatively narrow street. The
examples discovered at Priene and Delos (Figs. 81, 82) are of very
simple character, the usual features being a narrow entrance (D),
a single courtyard (A), with an exedra (B), facing the sun and
sheltered from the winds,* and one large room (C) provided for feasts,
and with smaller rooms and offices round the court and lighted

Fig. 81. — ^House.s at Priene.

from it. In che more important houses found in Priene and Delos
a peristyle is carried round tvTO, three, or eventually four sides
of the courtyard. The earlier examples, as those of the third century
at Priene (Fig. 81), still show the survival of the megaron type
which underlies the temple plan, a type which had been developed
by the Achaean and Dorian invaders of Greece ; but in the second
century, as at Delos (Fig. 82), the predominating type was the
oriental peristyle, often very graceful with its slender marble
columns (Plate LXV), and giving almost the effect of the Roman
atrium. The first portion of the description of the Greek house
given by Vitruvius is in accordance with the remains of these later
* Figs. 81 and 82 are oriented with north at the top.

the HELLENISTIC AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHASES

185

houses, with the peristyle and the narrow passage leading from
the street, flanked by the doorkeeper’s rooms on one side and the
stables on the other. The second portion of Vitruvius’s descrip-
tion applies to the more luxurious additions which crept in at a
later period, examples of which we find at Pompeii, but it becomes
necessary to reverse the order he gives ; in other words, that which
Vitruvius calls the gynaeconitis, or women’s quarter, should be

Fig. 82 . — Houses at Delos.

transferred to the rear, and the atrium with its sumptuous approach,
and the exedra, tablinum, triclinium, and other halls, become the
guest chambers where the master of the house received his clients
and supporters and entertained his guests.

An example of a residence on a more magnificent scale, a
summer palace near Palatitza. in Macedonia, was discovered by
Heuzey and Daumet (Fig. 83). The principal front of the palace,
which faced east, measured about 250^ feet ; at the centre was a

186

THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE

spacious entrance, and on either side were deep open porticoes of
the Doric order. The entrance was subdivided into three aisles
by two rows of Ionic columns similar to those found in the Propylaea
at Athens and Eleusis, and beyond was an open anteroom, with
various halls to the right and left, and in front a haU of audience,
which was once richly decorated with marbles. Passing through
this, one entered an immense court, about 200 feet wide, which
was surrounded by a peristyle giving access on the north and south
to v^arious chambers, and on either side of the haU of audience to
two great halls. The haU on the left or south side, which was
circular, with a diameter of 36 feet, was decorated with marble,
and in it the foundations of an altar or throne were found ; this may
have been the prytaneum, originally the house or hall of the king

or chief magistrate,
where the foreign en-
voys or distinguished
statesmen or generals
were received and en-
tertained. On the
north side was a cor-
responding hall, but
square, apparently
forming a state dining-
room ; it opened on to
a court farther north,
and beyond this, in
the north wing of the
building, lay the offices, kitchen,”etc. To the south of the circular
hall, on the other hand, were the private apartments of the king.

The simple and unpretentious character of Greek domestic
architecture as a whole, then, is due to the fact that the Greeks
would seem to have lavished their taste and skill on their public
buildings, and it is of the latter that we speak, as a rule, when
describing the architecture of Greece. These we have now passed
in review, the temples, altars, treasuries, stoas, and votive monu-
ments enclosed within the sacred precincts, and also the agora
with its colonnades or peristyles, the bouleuterion and the theatre,
the odeum and the stadium, the palaestra and the gymnasium.
For the further developments of classical architecture it is necessary
to turn to that of imperial Rome.

Fig. 83. — ^Portion of the Palace at Palatitza.
(Restored by Daumet)

187-192

//Venetia^
man ^ ^>p^ERONA^

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^ ^ >^NCONA "■'^VePo^LATO

"1 CORTON^Sp^Jyg /^ \

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OstiaSy^ $ ^^aeofisia) ^ \ -f

^BENEVfeNTUM^

•«•* Pi>zzuo^WPtg^^.^>.-'-V^

oVULCI '"■''Tarentum^/

PAESTUii^^^^^ ^ Mn^pom^Jiir

^ SEGESTA tMurtmiry —

V-^S icily yNaxos

ITALY

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST
OF GREEK TEMPLES

CHRONOLOGICAL LISt OF GREEK TEMPLES’

GIVING THEIR APPROXIMATE DATES ANlj PRUJOPAI, DIMENSIONS AND PS

Name of Temple

xopol

No. of

Height

Flntes

Front

Flank

Front
ft. m.

Flank

Upp«

n(?)

70 5

180 5(?

|J n

.6 3

26 3

SeUnus, ‘'C”

70 C

Z !

/ ?

16,20

28' 21

Selinus. '' D "

77 7

183 7

\4 7i
3 lOi

27 6

Paestum, Basilica

1 1

i 1

'6IH

,4 n

3 2

Corinth, Apollo

70 7

176 J

14 1

{4 Oi

23 n

Acragas, Zeus Olympms

173 6

362 1
360 11

10 2

M 0

Paestum, Demeter

70 0

142 6

■

Metapontum, Tavole Paladine
Delphi. Athenian Treasury .
Acragas, Heracles

^ 1

219 10

6 10

1 lOi

4 Hi

13 H

33 0}

Selinus, " A " '

Aegina, Aphaea

Athens, Older Parthenon

iT :

3 3

3 6i

23 6

17 H

Syracuse, Athena

72 2

180 4

6 3J

6 0

28 1

Olympia, Zeus

nn 10

uin ,1

fa ?

34 2}

Paestum, Poseidon

na 7

90 9

Acragas, Hera Lacinia

66 6

4 n

3 6

21 1

Acragas, Concord

Athens, Propylaea—

Central Building

prostyle

101 31

228 0

129 6

4 7J

4 lOi

8 Hi

34 3

22 1
f28 lOi

19 ^2*

Tth ■

m-antis

....

3 6i

Segesta '

100 7

Argos, Hera

66 9

> H

3 3i

24 2

Athens, Thesemn

45 0

2 6i

18 9*

Delphi, Apollo ...

71 2

ml!

"In

4 6i

34' 9

Nemea, Zeus

«5 ll

139 ^7

4 31

34 01

Olympia, Metroum

prcjtyle

SlO

^67 10

Fergamum, Athena Folias

Z 3

IVl

2 9

2 2

2 2i

17 3

14 81

14 101

Elensis, Artemis Propyiaea ....

ll 2

40 6

IONIC

Ephesus, Artemis (old)

8(6)

169 3

366 10 '1

■c 6 6J
.t i llj

{to3 11

48, 44

Samos, Hera

8 (»)

180 2

365 0 .(

.t e li

{.4^51

Athens, Ilissus

19 6

41 7

1 9i

1 61

14 81

Athens, Athena Nike

Liphi-

17 8

26 9

1 8i

I 6

13 Si

Athens, Erechtheum

prostyle

^ast^ Portico

. 6

prostyle

Z 2

2 3i

1 Hi

21 71

sil-dis, Artemis-Cybele ^

8(9)

169 3

366 10

331 8

6 or

4 91
C.6 7

C.67 6

Priene, Athena Polias

Didyma, Apollo

l“ 9

358 11

4 2i;

6 3J

Sminthe. ,^oUo

IVl

IS 8

3 loi ;

3 31

Teos, Dionysus

H 1

114 9

3 4i'

2 101

e.31%

ALtnrZms i''!

'■79 8

121 1

3 2 I

2 101

31 f

CORINTHIAN

Athens, Zeus Olympius

135 1

364 1

6 35 '

6 4i

65^6

:: :: ::

C.47 2

C.90 1

MOi

2 31 :

27 3

ding for comparison a few other i

ccurately dated buddings, the Atheniaii Trc

ia nrj- at

Delphi, thf

Propylaea and the

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:i02

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Perrot (G.) and Chipiez (C.). — Edstoire de I’Art dans I’Antiquiti : VII-
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PucHSTEiN (O.). — Die lonische Saule als klassisches Bauglied orientalischer
Herkunft. Leipzig, 1907.

Reber (F. von). — Liber die Anfange des lonischen Baustiles. (In Abh.
Mun. Akad., XXII, 1900.)

Van Buren (E. D.), — Archaic Fictile Revetments in Sicily and Magna
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VoGELSTEiN (J. B ). — Die lonischc Saule. (In Jahrh. Arch. XXXV,

1920.)

Washburn (O. M.). — ^The Origin of the Triglyph Frieze. (In A.J.A.,
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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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GENERAL WORIvS ON THE CULMINATING PERIOD
Chapter V

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GENERAL WORKS ON THE LATER PERIODS
Chapters VI to VII

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CoLLiGNON (M.). — Les Statues Funeraires dans I’Art grec. Paris, 1911.

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LOCAL WORKS : ATHENS AND ATTICA
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Der Altere Parthenon. (In Ath. Mitt , XVII and XXVII, 1892

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JuDEiCH (W.). — Topographic von Athen. Munich, 1905.

Kavvadias (P.) and Kawerau (G.). — Die Ausgrabung der Akropolis.
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LOCAL WORKS : PELOPONNESUS AND ADJOINING ISLANDS
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LOCAL WORKS : NORTHERN GREECE AND MACEDONIA
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WiEGAND (T.) and others. — ^Milet * Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und
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LOCAL WORKS : SICILY AND MAGNA GRAECIA
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LIST OF PERIODICALS CITED
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Abh(andlungen der) Mun(chner) Akad(emie).

Ann(uario della) Scuol(a) Ital(iana di AteneL
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Archaeologia.

’Apx(aioKoyiKhv) Ae\T(ioy).

Ath(enische) Mitt(eilungen, Deutsches Archaologisches Institut).

B(ulletin de) C(orrespondance) H(ellenique).

B(ritish) S(chool at) A(thens, Aimual).

Builder.

"E^(ifjp,epls:) 'A px(aio\oyiK'ft)

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Klio ( ; Beitrage zur Alten Geschichte).

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GLOSSARY

Abacus. — ^The uppermost member of a capital. Plain in the
Doric order j moulded in the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The
sides are concave in the Corinthian capital, and curve out over the
canted volute of the Ionic capital.

Abutment. — ^The masonry, brickwork, or earth which counteracts
the thrust of an arch or vault.

Acroterium {^l. Acroteria). — The figures or ornaments at the
lower angles or apex of a pediment generally supported on plinths.

Agora. — A public square or market-place in Greek cities corre-
sponding to the Forum in Roman cities.

Aisle (Lat., ala, a wing). — ^Term given to the side passages in
a haU or cella, separated from one another and from the central
nave by columns or piers.

Amphidistyle-in-antis. — ^Term applied to a temple with two
columns between antae at both front and rear. See Temples.

Amphiprosiyle. — ^Term applied to a temple with portico of
columns in front and rear only. See Temples.

Ancones. — Projecting bosses left on masonry blocks.

Anta (^/. Antae). — Pilaster (or comer post) of slight projection
terminating the end of the lateral walls of a cella, and serving
as respond to a column. In the latter case the columns are said to be
in-antis.

Antefix. — The decorative termination of the covering tiles
over the joints between the flat tiles of a roof, placed either directly
on the eaves tiles or on the top of the sima, sometimes also on the
crest of the ridge.

Anthemion (Gr. a.vQo%, a flower ). — K continuous pattern of
alternating palmette and lotus (the latter generally much con-
ventionalized and so sometimes, but erroneously, called honey-
suckle), often rising from nests of acanthus leaves and connected by
scrolls.

214

GLOSSARY

Apophyge (airo, from, and tfievyoo, I flee). — ^ a. The cavetto or con-
cave sweep taken by the end of the shaft in the Ionic and Corinthian
Orders in its junction with the upper or lower fillet. B. The similar
curve of the necking beneath the Doric echinus, forming the
junction between the capital and the shaft.

Apse. — A recess in the wall of a building, generally semi-circular
and vaulted over.

Apteros. — ^Without wings ; as applied to the statue and temple
of Wingless Victory (Nike Apteros), at Athens.

Araeostyle. — Wide-spaced. The term given by Vitruvius to
wide intercolumniations, carrying an architrave in timber. See
InTERCOLUMNI ATION .

AichitraTe. — ^A lintel in stone or beam of timber carried from the
top of one column or pier to another ; the lowest member of the
entablature {q. v.) . Applied also to the lintel and side posts or jambs
of a door or window.

Aichivolt. — A moulded architrave carried round an arch.

Airis. — ^A sharp edge formed by two surfaces meeting at an
external angle as in the flutings of the Doric column.

Ashlar Masoniy. — ^The term applied to regular masonry of
squared stone, with horizontal courses and approximately or
perfectly vertical joints.

Atlantes. — ^The Greek term for the male figures employed in
architecture in place of columns. See Telamones.

Astragal. — A small moulding of rounded, convex section.

Atrium. — ^The entrance court of a koman house, roofed over
at the sides, but open to the sky in the centre. In an atrium of large
size four or more colunms would be introduced to carry the
roof.

Attic. — ^Term applied to a storey above the main cornice, some-
times decorated with bas-reliefs, or utilised for an inscription.

Attic base. — ^The favourite type of Ionic base, consisting of an
upper and lower torus and a scotia between, with fillets.

Barrow. — Mound of stones or earth over the remains of the dead.
Basilica. — ^The Roman exchange and court of law. An oblong
rectangular building usually with aisles around and provided at the
middle of one side or at one or both ends with a recess used as the
Tribune ; the plan is derived from the Stoa Basileios at Athens.

GLOSSARY

215

Bibliotheca (Library). A chamber provided with cases to hold
manuscript rolls.

Bouleuterion. — ^The Greek Senate House.

Canalis (Channel). — ^Term given to the space between the fillets
of an Ionic volute : in early work, convex ; in the fully developed
types, concave.

Carcefes. — A row of stalls or horse-boxes at one end of a
hippodrome or circus enclosed by double doors, within which the
chariots waited tiU the signal was given for starting, when the doors
were simultaneously thrown open.

Caryatids. — ^Figures of maidens which take the place of columns
in supporting an entablature, as in the South Porch of the
Erechtheum, Athens.

Gaulicolus. — ^The stalk or stem from which spring the acanthus
leaves supporting the volutes or fleurons in the Corinthian capital.

Cavea. — ^The auditorium of a theatre, so called because originally
it was excavated in the rocky side of a hill.

CeUa. — ^The enclosed chamber or sanctuary of a temple, also
known by the Greek term naos.

Ohresmographion. — The term given to the chamber between the
pronaos and the naos or cella of a Greek temple where oracles
were delivered, as at Didyma.

Chryselephantine. — The term applied to a statue in which a
wooden core is overlaid with gold and ivory, the drapery and
ornaments being of the former and the flesh of the latter material.

Clepsydra. — A vessel employed in ancient days to measure time
by the running out of a certain quantity of water. There was
one in the Tower of the Winds at Athens, and the turret on the
south side is supposed to have contained the cistern which supplied
the water.

Coffer. — ^A sunk panel in a vault or ceiling.

Colonnade. — ^A range of columns. See Portico.

Columnae Caelatae. — ^The term given by Pliny to the sculptured
columns of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.

Columbarium. — h. pigeon-house. The plural, " columbaria,” is
applied to designate the apertures formed in walls to hold cinerary
urns, and hence to the sepulchral chambers themselves.

Cornice. — ^The upper member of the entablature [q.v.) sub-
divided into bed-mould, corona, and sima, though the last properly

216

GLOSSARY

belongs to the roof ; a term also employed for any projection
on a wall, provided to throw the rain-water from the face of the
building.

Corona. — The projecting member of the cornice having a vertical
face.

Crepidoma. — ^The term applied to the stepped platform of a
Greek temple.

Cunei. — ^The wedge-shaped groups into which the seats of a
theatre are divided by radiating passages.

Cyclopean Masonry. — ^The term applied to the rude but massive
masonry employed by the Aegean peoples and by the early Greeks
and Etruscans in the walls of their cities and citadels.

Cymatium. — A wave moulding of double curvature. When
the concave portion is uppermost it is called a cyma-recta ; when
the convex part is at the top it is called cyma-reversa ; the Doric
hawksbeak is another example of such a moulding.

Dado. — The lower portion of a wall when treated as a continuous
pedestal or wainscot ; sometimes only the plain surface between
the base and top mouldings of such a pedestal.

Decastyle. — ^Temple front with ten columns. See Temples.
Dentil. — Rectangular blocks in the bed-mould of a cornice
originally representing the ends of joists which carried a flat roof.
Diastyle. — See Intercolumniation.

Diaiilos. — ^The peristyle round the great court of the Palaestra
described by Vitruvius (V. 11).

Diazoma. — ^The Greek term for a horizontal passage which
separated the several ranges of seats in a theatre or stadium.

Die. — ^The vertical face of a pedestal or podium.

Dipteral. — ^Term applied to a temple surrounded by two rows of
columns, a double peristyle. See Temples.

Distyle-in-antis. — Temple front with two columns between
antae. See Temples.

Dodecastyle. — ^Temple front with twelve columns. See Temples.

Echinus. — The convex moulding of circular plan which supports
the abacus of a Doric capital. Also the similar moulding carved
with egg and tongue placed under the cushion of the Ionic capital
and appearing between the volutes.

Enneastyle. — Temple front with nine columns. See Temples.

GLOSSARY

217

Entablature. — The superstructure carried by columns ; it is
occasionally used to complete, architecturally, the upper portion
of a wall, even when there are no columns, and in the case of pilasters
or detached or engaged columns is sometimes profiled round them.
It is usually divided into three parts : viz., the architrave (the
supporting member, carried from column to column) ; the frieze
(the decorative portion) ; and the comice (the crowning and pro-
jecting member). The frieze is often omitted in the Asiatic Ionic
order.

Entasis. — ^The slight convex curve given to the arris of a Doric
column, or to the fillets between the flutes of other columns, in
order to correct an optical illusion ; if the shaft tapered upward
in absolutely straight lines, the silhouette of the column would
appear concave.

Epistyle. — ^The Greek term for the architrave [q.v.).

Eustyle. — See Intercolumniation.

Exedra. — K semi-circular stone or marble seat, or a rectangular
or semi-circular recess.

Fascia. — The term given to the planes into which the architrave
of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders is subdivided.

Flutes. — ^The vertical channels (segmental, elliptical, or semi-
circular in horizontal section) employed in the shafts of columns
in the classic styles. The flutes are separated one from the other
by an arris in the Greek Doric and early Ionic Orders, and by a
fillet in the developed Ionic and Corinthian Orders. In early and
late Doric columns the flute was usually segmental, but at the
best period, in order to emphasize the arris, it was formed of three
arcs constituting what is known as a false ellipse ; a similar but
deeper curve was given to the flutes in Greek Ionic and Corinthian
columns ; in later work the flute was semi-circular. In rare
examples the flutes were carried spirally round the columns.

Frieze. — ^The middle member of the entablature. Applied also
to any horizontal band enriched with sculpture. See Zophoros.

Groin. — ^The arris formed by the intersection of two barrel
vaults.

Guilloche. — K continuous plaited pattern of interwoven fillets,
leaving circular centres, sometimes filled with rosettes.

218

GLOSSARY

Guttae (drops).— Small pendant tapering cylinders like pegs
tinder the triglyphs and mutules of a Doric entablature. See

T RUNNEL.

Gymnasium. — A school for physical education and training,
particularly for exercises requiring considerable space, such as
running.

Helix. — The Greek term for a volute spiral, as used in the Ionic
or Corinthian capitals.

Hemicycle. — ^Term given to semi-circular recesses of great size,
sometimes vaulted.

Heptastyle. — ^Temple front with seven columns. See Temples.

Hexastyle. — ^Temple front with six columns. See Temples.

Hieron. — The name given to the sacred enclosure or Temenos
of some Greek temples, as at Epidaurus.

Hippodrome. — ^The course provided by the Greeks for horse and
chariot racing.

Hypaethral. — ^Term given to a temple the naos of which was
wholly or partly open to the sky.

Hypotrachelium (Gr., under the neck). — One or more grooves
under the necking or gorge of the Greek Doric capital which mask
the junction of capital and shaft.

Impluvium. — A shallow tank in the floor of the atrium of a
house, provided to receive the rain falling through the roof ; used
also of any shallow tank sunk in a floor.

Intercolumniation. — ^The distance between the columns of a
colonnade, defined in terms of the lower diameter of the columns.
They are thus set forth by Vitruvius (III. 3). — Pycnostyle, where
the columns are 1 J diameters apart ; Systyle, 2 diameters ; Eustyle,
21 diameters ; Diastyle, 3 diameters ; and Araeostyle, 3| diameters ;
the latter carrying architraves in wood only. Very different spacings,
however, were used in the better periods of Greek architecture.

Meander. — ^A continuous fret or key pattern, like a rectangular
spiral.

Megaron. — The principal or men’s haU in the Mycenaean palace.

Metope (Gr., between the holes). — Originally the panels of brick
wall between the holes left for the ends of the beams of the Doric
ceiling, and applied afterwards to the sunk panels between the
triglyphs (q.v.).

GLOSSARY

219*

Modillion. — ^The horizontal corbels carrying the corona of a
Corinthian cornice.

Module. — Usually the half diameter of the lower part of the shaft
of a Doric column, or the full lower diameter of an Ionic column.

Monopteral. — ^Term applied to a circular temple with columns,
only, lacking a cella. See Temple.

Mutule. — h. projecting slab on the soffit of the Doric cornice.

Nymphaeum. — A chamber (sometimes subterranean) in which
were plants and flowers and a fountain or running water.

Naos. — ^The term given to the cella of the Greek temple.

Octastyle. — ^Temple front with eight columns. See Temples.

Odeum. — A roofed building in which rehearsals and musical
contests took place.

Oecus. — In Greek houses (according to Vitruvius, VI. 10) the
room in which the mistress of the house sat with the spinstresses.
It was used also as a banqueting room. There were four kinds of
oeci, viz., the Tetrastyle, the Corinthian, the Egyptian, and the
Cyzicene.

Opaion. — ^The Greek word for the clerestory formed by a lantern
projecting above a roof. Applied also to an hypaethral opening
in a roof.

Opisthodomus. — ^The recessed porch in the rear of a Greek temple,
sometimes enclosed with bronze grilles and serving as a treasury ;
hence used also as the name of a treasury on the Athenian
Acropolis.

Orthostates. — ^The bottom course of the walls of the naos of a
Greek temple, generally twice or three times the height of the upper
courses.

Palaestra. — K training school for physical exercises, smaller than
the gymnasium and used for such events as wrestling, boxing, etc.

Parascenium. — ^The symmetrical wings of the scene building
which project into the orchestra.

Patera. — ^The representation of a flat, round dish or disk, usually
decorated ; used to ornament a panel, frieze, etc.

Pentastyle. — ^Temple front with five columns. See Temples.

Peripteral. — ^Term applied to a temple, the cella of which is
surrounded by a peristyle. See Temples.

220

GLOSSARY

Peristyle. — Term given (A) to a covered colonnade which sur-
rounds a building, (B) to an inner court lined with a colonnade.

Finacotheca. — ^A picture gallery.

Podium. — The Greek term for a low wall or continuous pedestal
on which columns, or even entire temples, are carried. It consisted
of a plinth, a dado and a comice.

Polygonal Masonry. — ^The term applied to carefully fitted masonry
in which the stones are not squared, but are hewn into polygons
or wavy shapes which approximate the original shapes of the
rough stones, but permit accurate adjustment to their neighbours,
the exposed faces afterwards dressed perfectly smooth, so that
the finished wall presents the appearance of a picture puzzle.

Portico. — ^A porch or entrance to a building. The term, when
applied to a Greek or Roman temple, is classed as (Distyle-in-
antis), two columns between antae ; (Tetrastyle Prostyle), four
columns in front ; (Hexastyle), six columns ; (Heptastyle), seven
columns ; (Octastyle), eight columns ; (Enneastyle), nine columns ;
(Decastyle), ten columns ; and (Dodecastyle), twelve columns.
See Temples.

Posticum. — ^The Latin term for the recessed porch in the rear of
a temple, the opisthodomus.

Fronaos. — ^The porch in front of the naos or ceUa.

Propylaeum. — ^The entrance gate to the Temenos or sacred
enclosure of a temple, when there is one doorway only ; when
there is more than one doorway, as at Athens and Eleusis, the
plural form propylaea is used.

Propylon. — A very simple building of the propylaeum type.

Prosceninm. — ^A colonnade six to ten feet deep and ten to
thirteen feet high between the orchestra and the scene building,
usually terminated at either end with a parascenium.

Prostyle. — ^Term applied to a temple with portico of columns in
the front. See Temples.

Prytanenm. — ^The state dining-room or guest-house in a Greek
city.

Pseudodipteral. — ^Term applied to a dipteral temple with the
inner rows of columns omitted. See Temples.

Pseudoperipteral. — ^Term applied to a peripteral temple where
some of the columns are engaged in the wall of the cella. See
Temples.

GLOSSARY

221

Pteroma. — ^The passage between the walls of the cella and the
peristyle.

Pteron (Gr., Wing). — ^The wing or flank colonnade of a temple,
and so used by Pliny of the colonnade carrying the superstructure of
the tomb of Mausolus.

Pycnostyle. — See Intercolumniation.

Quadriga. — ^The ancient four-horsed chariot.

Regula. — A narrow strip under the taenia of a Doric architrave,
beneath which the guttae are carved.

Respond. — (1) The wall pilaster behind a column. (2) The
wall pier carrying either the end of an architrave or beam or the
springing of an arch.

Scene (Gr., Tent). — ^A term used first of the player’s booth,
and afterwards of the building which replaced it, the back scene
of the theatre ; hence the word proscenium and parascenium.

Sima. — ^The term given to the terra-cotta or marble gutter
of a building, both on the gables and on the flanks ; it may or may
not be moulded ; on the flanks it is provided with outlets for rain-
water at intervals, often in the form of lions’ heads.

Spina. — ^The podium wall down the centre of the hippodrome.

Stadium. — ^A racecourse of fixed dimension, viz., six hundred
Greek feet ; a term applied also to that measure of length.

Stele. — ^Term given to (1) an upright Greek tombstone ; (2) to
any upright stone slab used for sculptured reliefs or for inscriptions.

Stereobate. — ^The substructure of a temple.

Stoa. — In Greek architecture a term corresponding with the Latin
porticus, a building with its roof supported by one or more rows of
columns parallel to the rear waU.

Stylobate. — ^The upper step of a temple, which formed a platform
for the columns. The term is sometimes misapplied to the three
steps, properly known as the crepidoma.

Systyle. — See Intercolumniation.

Taenia. — ^The projecting fiUet which crowns the architrave of
the Doric entablature.

222

GLOSSARY

Telamones. — ^The Roman term for male figures forming supports.
See Atlantes.

Temenos. — ^The sacred enclosure in which one or more Greek
temples stand.

Temples. — Types of Plan :

Distyle-in-antis — So-called Temple of Themis at Rhamnus
(Doric) .

Amphidistyle-in-antis — ^No examples known, except those with
engaged columns at the rear, viz.. Temples of Asclepius at
Acragas and of Serapis at Taormina (Doric).

Tetrastyle prostyle — ^Temple “ B ” at Selinus, Temple of Dionysus
at Pergamum (Doric).

Tetrastyle amphiprostyle — ^Temple of Artemis Propylaea at
Eleusis (Doric) ; Temples on the Ilissus and of Nike Apteros
at Athens (Ionic).

Tetrastyle pseudoperipteral — ^Temple at Cnidus (Corinthian).

Pentastyle peripteral — ^Temple of Apollo, Thermum (Doric).

Hexastyle peripteral — ^Heraeum at Olympia, Temples at Syracu^^e
(Apollo, Zeus, Athena), Selinus (“ A," “ C,” " D," " ER,"
“FS”), Acragas (Heracles, Hera, Concord), Paestum
(Demeter, Poseidon), and Segesta, Tavole Paladine at
Metapontum, Older Parthenon and Theseum at Athens,
Temples of Athena at Assos, Athens, Pergamum, and
Tegea, of Apollo at Corinth, Bassae, and Delphi, of Zeus
at Olympia, Nemea, and Stratos, of Hera at Argos, of
Poseidon at Sunium, of Asclepius at Epidaurus, of Nemesis
at Rhamnus, Metroum at Ol5nnpia (Doric) ; Temples of
Athena PoHas at Priene, of Dionysus at Teos, and the
Temples at Sagalassus and Euromus (Ionic).

Heptastyle pseudoperipteral — Temple of Zeus at Acragas (Doric).

Octostyle peripteral — ^The Parthenon, Athens (Doric).

Octostyle dipteral — ^Temples of Artemis at Ephesus, of Hera at
Samos (Ionic), and of Zeus Olympius at Athens (Corinthian).

Octostyle pseudodipteral — ^Temple " GT ” at Selinus (Doric) ;
Temples of Artemis at Magnesia and Sardis, of ApoUo at
Sminthe, of Aprodite at Aphrodisias, of Zeus at Aezani,
and at Messa in Lesbos (Ionic).

Enneastyle peripteral — ^The so-called Basilica at Paestum.

Decastyle dipteral — ^Temple of Apollo at Didyma (Ionic).

Dodecastyle prostyle — Telesterion at Eleusis (Doric).

GLOSSARY

228

Circular Temples :

Monopteral — Temple of Roma and Augustus at Athens (Ionic).

Peripteral— Tholos at Epidaurus and at Delphi (Doric) ; Phili-
peum at Olympia (Ionic).

Tetrastyle. — Temple front with four columns. See Temples.

Tholos. — ^Term given to a Greek circular temple with or without
a peristyle.

Trachelium (Gr.). — The necking or gorge of the Greek Doric
capital between the annulets on the echinus and the grooves which
mask the junction of capital and shaft.

Triclinium. — ^The dining-room of a Greek or Roman house, so
called from kKIvt), a couch, as it contained three couches upon
which the ancients reclined at meals.

Triglyph. — A projecting member separating the metopes, empha-
sised with vertical channels and chamfers, a survival of the primitive
beam end.

Trunnel. — A pin or peg, carved in stone beneath the regula of
the architrave and the mutule of the comice. See Guttae.

Tympanum. — ^Term given to the triangular wall enclosed by the
raking cornice of the pediment and the horizontal cornices of the
entablature beneath.

Volute. — ^The spiral scroll of the Ionic capital.

Voussoir. — A wedge-shaped stone which forms one of the units
of an arch.

Xoanon . — A rude and primitive image of a deity, carved in wood.

Xystus . — A Roman garden planted with groves of plane trees,
and laid out with flower-beds. In Greece the xystus was a covered
promenade or covered running track.

Zophoros or Zoophoros. — Term given to a continuous frieze
sculptured in relief with the forms of human beings and animals.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

[Arabic numerals refer to the PAGE numbers of illustrations ; Roman
numerals to the PLATE numbers).

Acragas ;

Olympieum at, 92
Temple of Asclepius, 162
Temple of Concord, XXI
Temple of Zeus Olympius, 91
Aegina, Temple of Aphaea, 89, XX
Aezani, Temple of Zeus, 164
Agrigentum, Temple of Juno Lacmia,
XX

Almda, Stoa at, 178
Assos •

Agora at, 177
Temple at, 86
Athens ;

Acropolis, 132, I [frontispiece),
XLIV, XLV, XLVII
Chair in the Theatre, LV
Choragic Columns on Acropolis, III
Erechtheum, 128, 129, XXXVIII,
XLI, XLII, XLIII
Grave Monument of Dexileos, 153
Monument to Lysicrates. LIV,
LV

Panathenaic Stadium, LVI
Parthenon, XXXIII, XXXIV,
XXXV, XXXVI
Propylaea, 133, XLII, XLIII,
XLVI

Stoa of Attains, 179
Temple of Athena Nike, 126, XL
Temple of Roma, 167
Temple of Zeus Olympius, 166, 166
Temple on the Ilissus, XL
Theseum, XXXVII, XXXVIII,
XXXIX

Tower of the Winds, LXIV
Votive Capitals, 106

Bassae :

Corinthian Order from, XXXII
Ionic Order from, XXXII
Temple of Apollo Epicurius, 113,
XXXI, XXXIII
Roof Tiles at, 116
Bracket Capital, V,

Capitals .

Archaic, X, XXVI
Bracket, V

Corinthian, 71, 146, III, LII, LIV,
LV, LX

Doric, 84, III, XIX, LIV
Ionic, 100, 103, 105, 106, XXVII,
XXVIII, XXXII, XLIII, XLIX,
LII. LX

Proto-Ionic, 71. XVI
Cnossus ;

Alabaster Frieze from, V
Faience house-fronts, IV
Palace of, domestic quarter, 24
Great staircase, VI
Light-shaft, VI
Plan, 20
Throne-room, V
Temple Frieze from, VII
Construction of Columns, 123
Corinth, Temple at, 87, XIX
Curvature of Stylobate, 120

Delos •

Houses at, 185
House of Cleopatra, LXV
Sanctuary of the Bulls, 170
Votive Capitals from, 106
Delphi :

Acanthus Column at, 164
Athenian Treasury, XXVI
Capital from, XXVI
Cornice and Sima Decoration,
XXVIII

Precinct of Apollo, XXV
Siphnian Treasury, XXIX
Tholos at, LIII, LIV
Didyma';

Capital from Temple of Apollo, 146
Temple of Apollo, 144, XLIX, LI,
LII

Eleusis :

Hall of the Mysteries at, 131
Lesser Propylaea, LVIII, LX, LXI
Entasis of Done Columns, 121

226

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Ephesus :

Capitals from Archaic Temple, 100,
XXVII

Later Temple of Artemis, 141, L, LI
Plan of, 173
Theatre at, 180, LXV
Epidaurus :

Palaestra at. 183
Theatre at, 157, LVI, LVII
Tholos at, 147, LII

Halicarnassus, Mausoleum at, XLIX,
LIII

Inclinations of Doric Columns, 122
Korakou :

Apsidal House at, 17
Rectangular House at, 18

Larissa, Capital from, XVI
Locri, Capitals from, 106

Magasa, Neolithic House at, 14
Magnesia, Temple of Artemis, 163, LX
Megalopolis, Thersilion at, 166
Melos, Urn showing round houses at,
IV

Mycenae ;

Capital from, X
Columns from, X
Fragments of Facade, XIII
Grave Circle at, 45
Lion Gate at, IX, XI
Tomb of Agamemnon, 49, XIV
Tomb of Clytemnestra, XII
Mylasa, Tomb at, LXII
Myra, Tomb at, XVII

Naucratis, Capital from Temple of
Apollo at, 103

Naxian, Votive Column, XXVIII
Neandria :

Temple at, 70

Proto-Ionic Capital from, 17
Nemea, Temple of Zeus at, XLVIII
Olympia :

Heraeum at, 65, XV
Philippeum at, 148
Temple of Zeus, 112, XXIV, XXX
Terra-cotta facings from, 95
Orchomenus :

Ceiling of Tomb at, XIII
Circular Huts at, 16

Paestum :

Basilica at, 83, 84, XVII
Temple of Demeter, 85
Temple of Poseidon, XXTI
Temples at, 83
Palatitza, Palace at, 186
Pergamum, Great Altar at, LXII
Phaestus :

Palace at, 29
Theatral Area. VII
Piraeus, Arsenal at the, 165
Priene ;

Houses at, 184
Plan of. LXIII
Temenosat, 168
Temple of Athena, 140, XLIX
Theatre at, LXIV
Proto-Doric Entablature, 29

Rhamnus, Temple of Nemesis, 88

Sardis, Temple of Artemis Cybele,
142, XLVIII

Segesta, Temple at, XXIII
Sehnus :

Temples at, 22, 23. XVII. XVIII
Megaron on the Acropolis at, 63
Stele, Cypriote, XVI
Stele of Antiphanes, 96
Sunium, Temple of Poseidon, III,
XXXVII
Syracuse :

Olympieum at, 78
Temple of Apollo, 78, 79
Temple of Athena, 93

Tamossos, Door jamb of Tomb at,
XVI

Tegea, Capital from, LII
Thermum ;

Entablature from Temple of Apollo,
XV

Temple of Apollo, 64
Tiryns :

Approach to Inner Gate, IX
Megaron at, VIII
Palace at, 34
Wall-gallery at, XII
Troad, Temple of Apollo Smintheus in
the, 163

Troy, Palace in the second city of, 31
Xanthus :

Nereid Monument at, 151
Tomb of Payava, 74

INDEX

PAGE

Aahmes (Amasis) II .... 98.103

Abacus .... 27, 41, 53, 67, 77, 87, 114,
116, 120

Acanthus 114-115, 148, 149, 153, 164
,, Column, Delphi .... 149, 164

Achaeans.... 11-12, 47, 67. 68, 69
Acrae, colonised .... .... .... 69

Acragas, colonised, 6, 59 ; des-
truction, 137 ; S. Maria dei
Greci (Temple of Athena ?)

89 : situation, 89-90 ; Tem-
ple of Asclepius, 162 ; Tem-
ple of Castor and Pollux. 90,

91 ; Temple of Concord, 90,

91 ; Temple of Hephaestus,

90, 91 : Temple of Hera
Lacinia, 89, 91 ; Temple of
Heracles, 90, 91 ; Temple
of Zeus Olympius, 90-91,

162 ; Tomb of Theron 170-171
Acropolis, Acragas, 89 ; Athens,
42-43, 87-88, 94, 132-133,

166 ; Selinus 79

Acroterion (see also Final) 66, 97, 111,
163

Adler. F 63, Fig. 69

Aegae, Proto-Ionic capital, 71 ;

Stoa, 178 ; Theatre .... 181
Aegean culture . .. .... 8, 9-56

Aegina, Aegean settlement, 12 ;

Temple of Aphaea .... .... 88

Aeolians .... 67, 68, 70

Aeolic capitals. See Capitals ....
Aesculapius. See Asclepius
Aezani, Stadium, 182 ; Temple

of Zeus, 164 ; Theatre 180-181
Agamemnon, 46 ; Tomb of,

Mycenae .... .... 48-53, 67

Agora .... 20, 172, 174, 176-179

Agoracritus (sculptor) 110

Agrigentum. See Acragas
Agrippa, Pedestal of, Athens .... 166
Alcamenes (sculptor) .... 110, 126

Alea, epithet of Athena

Alexander the Great 99, 138, 147, 160

PAGE

Alexandria Troas, Baths 182-183
Alinda, Stoa, 176-178 ; Theatre 181
Altars .... 22, 34, 62, 84, 94, 167,
168-169

Amasis (Aahmes) II .... 98, 103

Amorgos, House urn 16

Amphiprostyle .... .... 127, 162

Ancones .... .... 93, 121, 124

Ancyra, Temple of Augustus and

Roma .... .... .... 166

Angle capitals (Ionic) 102, 126, 130
Angora. See Ancyra
Anta (see also Pilaster) 17,32,35,36-
37, 38, 66, 69, 80, 83, 134, 136
„ capitals 84-85, 130, 139-140,

146, 146

Antefix 66, 149

Anthemion .... 84, 104, 107, 130, 144
Antigonus, Portico of, Delos .... 169
Antioch (Pisidian), Sanctuary of

Men Ascaenus 23

„ (Syrian), Colonnaded

streets .... .... .... 176

Antiochus III the Great 161

„ IV Epiphanes .... 162, 164
Antiphanes, Stele of, Athens .... 97

AntipheUus, Tombs 76

Antoninus Pius, 181 ; Temple of,

Sagalassus 166

Aphaea, Temple of, Aegina .... 88

Aphrodisias, Stadium, 182 ;

Temple of Aphrodite 164, 166
Aphrodite, 60 ; Temple of, Aph-
rodisias 164, 166

Apollo, 60 ; Statues of, 113, 146 ;
Temple at Bassae, 110, 112-
117, 120, 136; Temple at
Corinth, 87 ; Temple at
Delos, 60, 121 ; Temple at
Delphi, 60, 106, 139 ; Tem-
ple at Didyma, 103, 143-
146 ; Temple at Metapon-
tum, 84, 85 ; Temple at Nau-
cratis, 103-104 ; Temple at
Selinus, 79. 83-84, 86, 121 ;

228

INDEX

Temple at Sminthe, 163 ;
Temple at Syracuse, 77-78 ;
Temple at Thermum, 63-64, 68
Apollo Eoicurius, Temple of,

Bassae 110, 112-117, 120, 136
Apse ... ... 16-17, 62

Apteros, epithet of Nike
Arch ... 16, 178, 181

,, of Hadrian, Athens . 165

Archaic period ... 7, 8, 76-107

Architects (Ancient). See Calli-
crates, Callimachus, Chersi-
phron, Cossutius, Demetrius,
Eupolemus, Hermogenes,
Ictinus, Libon, Metagenes,
Mnesicles, Paeonius, Philon,
Polyclitus, Pythius, Saty-
rus, Scopas, Theodoras, Vit-
ruvius, Xenocles, Zeno.
Architrave, 68, 85, 102, 127, 131 ;

sculptured 86, 150

Argive Heraeum, Aegean settle-
ment, 13, 42 ; Temple of
Hera (later), 126 ; Temple
of Hera (older), 60, 64 ; Tho-

los tomb 48, 61

Argos 42

Armenoid stock 11

Ame. See Gla

Arrephoroi 130

Arris 101, 104, 106, 121

Arsenal, Piraeus.... .... 164-166

Artemis, 60 ; Altar at Magnesia,

169 : Temple at Eleusis,
162-163 ; Temple at Ephe-
sus, 60, 80, 99-103, 140-142 ;
Temple at Magnesia, 163 ;
Temple at Sardis ....60, 142-143
Artemis Brauronia, Precinct of,

Athens 134

,, Leucophryene, Altar of,
Magnesia, 169 ; Tem-
ple of. Magnesia .... 163
„ Propylaea, Temple of,

Eleusis .... 162-163

Artemisia.... .... 160

Aryans 10

Asclepius, Temple at Acragas,

162 ; Temple at Epidaurus 139
Ashlar masonry .... 41, 175, 178, 181
Asia Minor. See Aegae, Aezani,
Alexandria Troas, Alinda,
Ancyra, Antioch (Pisidian),

Antiphellus, Aphrodisias,
Aspendus, Assos, Cnidus,
Colophon, Didyma, Ephesus,
Erythrae, Euromus, Hali-
carnassus, Hierapolis, Ilium,
Laodicea, Larissa, Magnesia,
Miletus, Mylasa, Myra,
Neandria, Patara, Perga,
Pergamum, Phocaea, Pin-
ara, Priene, Sagalassus,

Sardis, Side, Sinope,
Sminthe, Smyrna, Telmes-
sus, Teos, Termessus, Tralles,
Troy, Xanthus, Lycians,
Lydians, Phrygians.

Asine, Aegean settlement .... 42

Aspendus, Theatre 181

Assembly hall (Thersilion), Mega-
lopolis 166

Assos, Agora, 176 ; Temple of
Athena, 86, 109 ; Theatre.... 180

Astarte .... 60

Astragal 26, 63, 104

Athena, 60 ; Altar at Priene,

169 : Statues of, 110, 112,

118, 126, 126, 133 ; Temple
at Acragas (? S. Maria dei
Greci), 89 ; Temple at
Assos, 86; Temples at
Athens, 60, 87-88, 110, 114,
117-126, 126-131, 183, 134,

136 ; Temple at Pergamum,

162 : Temple at Priene,
139-140 : Temple at Syra-
cuse, 92 : Temple at Tegea

138-139

Athena, Alea, Temple of, Tegea

138-139

„ Lemnia, Statue of, Athens 110
,, Nike, Temple of, Athena

120, 126-127, 134
„ Parthemos, Statue of,

Athens .... 110, 112, 118, 126
„ Polias, Altar of, Priene,

169 ; Stoa of, Perga-
mum, 169 ; Temple of,
Athens (see Erechtheum),
114, 128; Temple of,
Pergamum, 109, 162 ;
Temple of, Priene, 139-

140

„ Promachos, Statue of,

Athens 110, 133

INDEX

229

Athenians, Colonnade of, Del-
phi, 106 ; Treasury of,
Delphi ... 97

Athens, Acropolis in general,

94, 132-133, 166 ; Acropolis
walls, 42-43, 87-88 ; Aegean
palace, 37, 43 ; Aegean

settlement, 13 ; Aegean
walls, 42-43 ; Arch of Had-
rian, 165 ; Beule Gate, 149-
150, 166-167 ; Choragic

columns, 180 ; Choragic
monument of Lysicrates,

104, 147-149 ; Choragic

monument of Nicias, 149-
150, 167 ; Choragic monu-
ment of Thrasyllus, 150 ,
Culmination of Greek archi-
tecture in, 108-110,117-136 ;
Erechtheum, 104, 114, 120-
121, 127-131, 136, 149, 166;

Fall of Athens, 137 ; Ionic
votive capitals, 70, 106 ,
Library of Hadrian, 166 ;
Odeum of Herodes Atticus,

160, 181-182; Odeum of
Pericles, 136 ; Old Temple
of Athena, 87, 133 ; Older
Parthenon, 87-88 ; Olym-
pieum, 88, 121, 164-166 ;
Parthenon, 110, 117-126,

136 ; Pedestal of Agrippa,

166 ; Pinacotheca, 134 ;
Precinct of Artemis Brau-
ronia, 134 ; Propylaea, 33,

68, 121, 133-134, 136, 166,
167-168 : Sack by Sulla,

135 : Sanctuary of Pan-
drosus, 178 ; Sanctuary of
Thesus, 126 ; Stadium, 158-
159 ; Statue of Athena
Lemnia, 110; Statue of
Athena Parthenos, 110, 112,

118, 125 ; Statue of Athena
Promachos, 110, 133 ; Stele
of Antiphanes, 97 ; Stele of
Dexileos, 153-154; Stoa of
Attains II, 178-179 ; Temple
of Athena Nike, 120, 126-
127, 134 ; Temple of

Hephaestus, see Theseum ;
Temple of Roma and
Augustus, 166 ; Temple of

PAGE

Zeus Olympius, 88, 121, 164-
166 ; Temple on the Ilissus,

127 ; Theatre of Dionysus,
134-135, 147, 148, 149, 160,
167-168, 180 ; Theseum,

126-126, 136; Tomb, see
Stele ; Tower of the Winds

179-180

Athens Museums 9, 27, 52,

53, 106, 126, Fig. 36
Atlante^ (Telamones) .. .... 90

Atreus, Treasury of, Mycenae . 48-

63, 67

Attalus II, Stoa of, Athens 178-179

Attic 150, 162

,, base. See Bases.

Attica, Culmination of Greek

architecture in 108-110, 117-136
Auditorium ... 136, 157-168, 181

Augustus ... 166

,, and Roma, Temple at
Ancyra, 166 ; Temple at

Athens .. 166

Aurelius, Marcus . . .... 162

Ayakli. See Euromus.

Bacchus. See Dionysus.

Bacon, F. H 176 ; Fig. 27, 76

Baeza (Spain), Columns .. 27

Barrel-vault .... 16, 32, 158, 171

Bases, Aegean, 26, 33, 34, 36,

37, 43 ; Attic, 129, 144 ;
Doric, 90 ; Ionic, 72, 100,

181, 139, 143-144, 163, 164
Basilica, 176 ; at Paestum . . 67,

84-86, 121

Bassae, Temple of Apollo

Epicurius ... 110,112-117,

120, 136

Baths . 23, 36, 159, 182-183

Beehive tombs See Tholos
tombs.

Beni-Hasan (Egypt), Columns .... 67

Benoit, F. ,. , .. .... 7

Berlin Museum .... 52, 169 ; Plates

XLIX, LX, LXII

Beule, E. 166

Beule Gate, Athens 149-150, 166-167

Bibliography 201-211

Blegen, C. W 37

Blouet, A. . .... ... 63

Bohn, R. . . Plate XLV

Borrmann, R .... .... 7

230

INDEX

PAGE

Bouleuterion ... .... - 176

Brancliidae. See Didyma.

Brauronia, epithet of Artemis
Bnck, Use of .... 16, 26, 27, 28,

31-32, 36, 39, 62, 63, 66, 69, 175,
184

Bridges 20, 43

Bronze, Use of . 11, 50, 63, 61,

98, 107, 111, 114, 126, 147, 149

Bryaxis (sculptor) 150

Buhlmann. J .. Plate LIU

Bulle, H. .. .' .. . Fig. 2

Bulls, Sanctuary of, Delos 169-170

Bury, J. B 12

Butler, H. C 142-143

Buttresses .... 15, 31, 66, 113

Byzes of Naxos (sculptor) . 103

Cadmus . . 13

Callicrates (architect) 110, 117, 126
Callimachus (sculptor) ... 110, 114

Camarina, colonised, 69 ; destroyed
137

Cambridge University 167

Canalis 101, 104, 106

Candia Museum 9

Canted volute ... 114,158,171

Capitals, Aegean, 26-27, 34, 41,

63, 67 ; Aeolic, 71, 107, 114,

179 : Bracket, 27, 102, 170 ;
Caryatid, 106 ; Composite,

164, 181 ; Corinthian, 110,

113, 114-115, 139, 145, 147-
149, 165, 167, 179-180 ;

Doric, 65, 67, 77, 84, 87, 162,

167 ; hexagonal, 167 ; Ionic
101-102, 103-104, 105-106,

113, 114, 129-130, 143, 144-
145, 160, 158, 161, 163, 164,

171; octagonal, 179 ; Proto-
Ionic, 27. 70-72, 101, 105;
triangular .... .... .... 180

Carrey, J. 126

Carthaginians .... 77, 84, 93, 137

Caryatids.... 106, 107, 128, 130,
164, 167

Castor and Pollux, Temple of,

Acragas 90, 91

Catana, colonised 58

Cavea. See Auditorium.

CeUings .... 61, 66, 68, 72, 88, 91,

116, 116-117, 131, 133, 134
Celia 61

PAGE

Cephallenia, Aegean settlement 13

Ceres. See Demeter.

Chaeronea, Battle of 137, 160

Chalia, Aegean settlement ... 13

Chamber tombs .. 46-47

Chersiphron (architect) ... 102

Chipiez, C. ... 34, 35, 63, Fig. 39
Choisy, A. 7, 148

Choragic monuments 147-160,180

Chresmographion . .145

Chronological list of Greek

temples . . before 187

Chronological memoranda
Chrysapha, Stele at . .... 80

Chryselephantine statues 61, 110,
112, 118, 126
Cimon . . . ... 126

Circular buildings 14, 15-16, 19, 30,
31, 46-54, 135, 147-149, 166
Cist graves . . .... 44, 46

Cities, Arrangement of 89, 171-176

Clarke, J. T Fig. 27

Claudius Pulcher, Appius . . 167

Clepsydra . 179

Clocks 174, 179

Clytemnestra, Tomb of, Mycenae

48, 61, 63

Cnidians, Treasury of, Delphi.... 107
(106 note)

Cnidus, Temple, 166 ; Walls .... 176
Cnossus, Aegean settlement, 9,

12 : Palace of Minos, 9, 20-
27, 29-30; Royal Villa, 30;
Temple fresco, 26, 43 ; Town
mosaic ... .... 15, 38

Cockerell, C. R., 88, 90, 107, 114, 115,
116, 117, 119, 143, 160, 152;

Plate XXXI

Coffer 86, 131

Colonnades .... 94, 106, 121, 154,
169, 175, 176-179
Colophon, Tholos tomb .... 64

Colouring. See Polychromy ....
Column, Acanthus, Delphi, 149,

154 ; Naxian, Delphi ... 106
Columnae caelatae ... 100, 140-

142, 144, 176

Columns (see also Bases, Capi-
tals, etc.), Aegean, 14, 16,

18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26-27,
28-29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 36, 36,

37, 38, 40-41, 43, 62-63;
Corinthian (see alsoTemples,

INDEX

231

Corinthian), 113, 139, 145,
147-149, 154, 165, 170, 181 ,
Doric (see also Temples,
Doric), 62, 96, 97, 133, 146,
147, 149, 154, 168, 170, 179,

182, 186 ; double or ellip-
tical, 169, 170, 179; en-
gaged or semi-detached, 83,

90, 113, 128, 139, 147, 148,

158, 162, 166, 170, 178;
Ionic (see also Temples,
Ionic), 63, 75, 84, 113, 118,

134, 139, 147, 150-152, 154,

155, 158, 165, 166, 167, 168,

169, 170-171, 179, 186 ;

Proto-Doric (Egyptian), 67 ;
superposed (see Super-
posed) ; wooden, 14, 15, 18,

23, 25, 26,-27 30, 34, 35, 52,

63, 64, 66, 67

Composite capitals. See Capitals
Concord, Temple of, Acragas 90, 91
Constantinople Museum .... 153

(Fig. 17, Plate XVI)
Construction .... 93, 115, 121-124,
166-166

Contraction of angle intervals.... 64

66, 86

Copper, Introduction of.... 11, 13

Corbelled vaults.... 16-16, 30, 31, 42,
44, 47, 49-60, 54
Corcyra, colonised .... 68, 69

Corinth, Aegean settlements (see
also Korakou, 39 ; Agora,

176 ; Baths, 183 ; destroyed
161 ; Fountain of Pirene,

43, 114; Shaft graves, 44;

Temple of ApoUo 87

Corinthian bronze .... ... 114

Corinthian order. See Capitals,
Columns, Entablature

Corinthian tiles 156

Corinthian War . .. .... 137

Cornice . . 86-86, 127

Cos, colonised 59

Cossutius (architect) .... 164-166

Cradle or sofa volute . .. 146, 168

Cretan sites. See Cnossus,
Damana, Gournia, Hagia,
Triada, Hagios, Onouphrios,
Isopata, Juktas, Koumasa,
Maleme, Malai, Mochlos,
Mouliana, Palaikastro, Pet-

PAGE

sofa, Phaestus, Pseira, Sitia,
Siva,Trypiti, Tylissos, Zakro
Crete (see also Minoan culture) . 9-14,
20

Croesus . . 99

Culmination period . ..7, 108-136

Cumae, colonised .... .... 68

Cunei 167

Curvature (upward) .... 119, 120

Cybele, 69-60 ; Temple of,

Sardis, ... 60, 142-143

Cycladic culture .. 10, 11-12, 44

Cyclopean masonry ... 40, 41, 42

Cjrprus (see also Paphos,

Tamossos) .... 11, 12, 13, 58,

70-71, 72, 76

Cyrene, colonised 6

Cyrrhestes, Andronicus.... 179-180

Damana, Vaulted tomb .... 64

Darius 71, 72, 99, 103

Daumet, H 185, Fig. 83

Decastyle... 143

Dechne, Period of ..., 8 , 137-186

De Jong, P Fig. 10, 11

Dehan Confederacy 108-109, 138

Delos, Cave Temple, 44 ; Houses,

184 ; Ionic votive capitals,

106 ; Portico of Antigonus,

169 ; Sanctuary of the Bulls,
169-170; Situation, 95;
Temple of Apollo, 60, 121 ;

Treasuries .... 96

Delphi, Acanthus column, 149,

164 ; Athenian stoa, 106 ;
Athenian treasury, 97 ;

Cnidian treasury, 107 (106
note) ; Gymnasium, 159 ;
Masshiote treasury, 107 ;
Naxian column, 106 ; Siph-
nian treasury, 84, 106-107 ;
Situation, 94-95, 104 ; Stoae
106, 169 ; Temple of

Apollo, 60, 106, 139 ;

Tholos 147

Delphi Museum .... Plates XXVI,
XXVIII, XXIX, LIV
Demeter, 60 ; Temple at Eleusis
(see Telesterion ; Temple

at Paestum 84-86

Demetrius of Ephesus (architect) 142
Dentil .... 72, 74-76, 127, 130, 140,
145, 149

232

INDEX

PAGE

Der-el-Bahari (Egypt), Columns, 67

Dexileos, Stele of, Athens 163-164

Diana. See Artemis . . .

Diazoma .. . .168

Didyma, Temple of Apollo . 103,

143-146

Dilettanti, Society of . .168

Dimini, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Houses . .19

Diminution of Columns. See
Tapering

Dionysius . . . . . 137

Dionysus, 60 ; Altar of, 135, 157,
Frieze of, 149 ; Statue of,

160 : Temple at Pergamum,

162 ; Temple at Teos, 163 ;
Theatre of, Athens 134-135,

147, 148, 149, 150, 167-168,

180

Dipteral .... 99, 104, 140, 143, 162,
163, 164

Distyle .. 33, 88, 97, 162, 179

Dodecastyle 132, 146

Domes ... 15-16, 30, 31, 47, 49-60,
64

Domestic architecture . 13-19, 20-

38, 183-186

Donaldson, T. L. 63, 119

Dorians 12, 67, 69, 69, 70

Doric order. See Bases, Capitals,
Columns, Temples ....

Doorways 23, 36, 37, 46, 48, 51-53,
66, 69, 80, 84, 91, 107, 113, 130-131,

Dorpfeld, W 31, 32, 34, 96

126, 134, 139 ; Fig. 52, 63, 65
Durm, J.. . 7, 34, 41, 52, 111 ;

Fig. 16, 21, 26, 38

Echinus .... 27, 41, 53, 84, 87,

97, 101, 103, 163
Egg-and-tongue-moulding 101-102,
103-104, 105, 163, 171
Egjrpt, Greek connexions with, 6,
12, 27, 61, 67, 70, 98, 103-
104 ; Roman annexation .... 161
Egyptian columns ... 67, 70

Eleusis, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Hall of the Mysteries or
Telesterion (later), 121, 131-
132, 146, 156, 156 : HaU of
the Mysteries (older), 93-
94 ; Porch of Philon, 121,

P.A.GE

132, 146, 155 ; Propylaea,
Greater, 167-168, Propy-
laea, Lesser, 167 ; Temple
of Artemis Propylaea 162-163
Eleusinian limestone 112, 129

Elis, Agora 176

Enclosures of Greek temples 94
Engaged columns 83, 90, 113, 128,
139, 147, 148, 168, 162, 166, 170, 178
Enneastyle 84, 100, 104, 114

Entablature, Corinthian, 149 ;
friezeless Ionic, 72, 73, 130,

140, 152, 169 : mixed Doric-
Ionic, 167, 179

Entasis 84, 119, 120, 121, 124
Ephesus, Agora, 174-175 ; Baths,

183 : City plan, 171, 172-
175 ; colonised, 58, 98 ;
Library of Celsus, 175 ;
Nymphaeum, 175; Stadium,

182 : Temple of Artemis
(later), 140-142 ; Temple of
Artemis (older), 60, 80, 99-
103, 139, 140, 172 ; Theatre,

174, 180

Epicurius, epithet of Apollo
Epidaurus, Bridge, 43 ; Colon-
nade, 154 , Palaestra, 182 ;
Situation, 96 ; Temple of
Asclepius, 139 : Theatre,

147, 167, 168 : Tholos . . 147
Epinaos. See Opisthodomus.
Epistyle. See Architrave.
Erechtheum, Athens . 104, 114,
120-121, 127-131, 136, 149, 166
Erechtheus, Shrine of, Athens

(see Erechtheum) ... 128

Erythrae, colonised .58

Etruscan tombs .... . . 156

Eumenes II . . 144, 168

Eupolemus (architect) 110, 126

Euromus (Ayakli), Temple . .. 165
Evans, Sir Arthur 9, 20, 22, 26
Exedra . 94, 168, 184

Falkener, E.

Fascia
Fenger, L.
Fergusson, J.
Finial

Flutes . .

.... 172, 174, 183:

Fig. 75
.... 72, 73, 102, 130
Plate XXXV

141-142

147, 149, 179
30, 52, 72, 101, 104,
106, 121, 124, 149, 162

INDEX

233

PAGE

Fougeres, G ... 80

Fourth, ceutury ... . . 8, 137-159

Frieze, Absence of, 72, 73, 130,

140, 152, 169 ; sculptured,

76, 80, 107, no, 116, 124-
125, 126, 127, 136, 145, 149,

150, 162, 169, 179 ; tnglyph,

27, 35, 63, 66, 68, 78, 86, 162,

167, 169, 179
Funerary architecture . . 44-45, 71,

73-75, 97, 160-154, 156, 170-171

Gandy-Deering, J. P. 131,

Plate hVIII

Gardner, P Ill, 119

Gates (see also Propylaea) .. 33,

39, 40-41, 42, 149-150, 166-167
Gela, colonised, 59 : destroyed,

137 ; terra-cotta exports . 96

Geloans, Treasury of, Olympia . 96

Geographical notes . . 6-6

Gerkan, A. von . Plate LXIII

Girgenti. See Acragas.

Gla, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Palace, 37 ; Walls 42

Gods. See Antoninus Pius,
Aphaea, Aphrodite, Apollo,
Artemis, Asclepius, Astarte,
Athena, Augustus, Castor
and Pollux, Concord,
Cybele, Demeter, Dionysus,
Erechtheus, Hephaestus,
Hera, Heracles, Hermes,
Mother of the Gods, Pan-
drosus, Poseidon, Rhea,
Roma, Serapis, Theseus,

Zeus.

Gournia, Aegean settlement, 12 ;

House tomb, 54 ; Palace 30, 38
Graeco-Roman period 8, 161

Granicus, Battle of the 160

Grave circle, Mycenae . .. 46-46

Greek islands. See Aegina,
Amorgos, Cephallenia, Cor-
cyra, Cos, Crete, Cyprus,
Delos, Ithaca, Leucas,

Melos, Naxos, Paros,

Rhodes, Samos, Seriphos,

Siphnos, Syxa, Thera.

Greek mainland sites. See
Argive Heraeum, Argos,
Asine, Athens, Bassae,

Chalia, Chrysapha, Corinth,

PAGE

Delphi, Dimini, Eleusis,

Elis, Epidaurus, Gla, Hagia,
Marina, Korakou, Lebadea,
Lianokladi, Megalopolis,
Memdi, Messene, Mideia,
Mycenae, Nauplia, Nemea,
Olympia, Orchomenus, Pal-
atitza, Piraeus, Pylos,
Rakhmani, Rhamnus, Rini,
Sesklo, Sparta, Spata,
Stratos, Sunium, Tegea,
Thebes, Thermum, Thori-
cus, Tiryns, Tsangli, Vaphio,
Zygouries

Guilloche . .... 130, 131

Guttae .. .. . .... .... 68

Gymnasium . 159, 182-183

Gynaeconitis . . .... 186

Hadrian, 162, 166; Arch of
Athens, 165 ; Library of,
Athens . . . .166

Hagia Marina, Aegean settle-
ment .. . 13

Hagia Triada, Palace, 30, 38 ;

Tholos tomb .... . 47

Hagios Onouphrios, Tholos tomb 47
Halicarnassus, Mausoleum ... 160-
162, 170

Hall, H. R 12

Hall of the Mysteries (Teleste-
rion), Eleusis . 93-94,

121, 131-132, 146, 155, 166
Haller, Baron . 88, 116

Hamdy Bey . . 162-163

Harland, J. P . . 12

Hearth . . 17, 22, 31, 33. 35. 36,

Hecatompedos Naos ., . .... 118

Helladic culture 10, 11-12

Hellenistic period ... 8, 160

Hemeroscopion, colonised .... 6

Henderson, A. E. ... 102,

Plate L

Hephaestus, 60 ; Statue of,
Athens, 126 ; Temple at
Acragas, 90, 91 ; Temple at
Athens . 125-126

Heptastyle .. 90

Hera, 60 ; Statue of, Argive
Heraeum, 126 ; Temple at
Acragas, 89, 91 ; Temple
at Argive Heraeum, 60, 64,

234

[NDEX

PAGE

126 ; Temple at Olympia.
64-66, 68-69 ; Temple at
Samos ... .. 60. 140

Hera Lacinia, Temple of, Acragas, 89,
91

Heracleidae, Return of the . . 69

Heracles, Temple of, Acragas 90, 91
Heraeum (Temple of Hera),
Argive, 60, 64, 126 ; Olym-
pian, 64-66, 68-69 ; Samian,

60, 104

Hercules. See Heracles.

Hermes, 60 ; Statue of, Olympia 66
Hermogenes (architect) 162-163
Herodes Atticus, Odeum of,
Athens, 150, 181-182 ; Sta-
dium, Athens 169

Herodotus, cited 173

Heuzey, L. 185

Hexastyle .... 64, 65, 77. 79.

80, 84, 86, 87, 91, 92, 96, HI.
113, 126, 126, 128, 133, 139, 149,
162, 165, 166, 168

Hierapolis, Theatre 181

Himera, Battle of, 77 ; colon-
ised, 68 ; destroyed .... 137

Hippias 88

Hippodrome 169

Hissarlik. See Troy.

Historical notes .... 7-8, 9-12, 67-69,
76-77, 98-99, 108-109, 137-138,
160-161

Hittorff, J. 1 79-80, 161

Hoffer, J 119

Homer, cited 32, 36, 49

Homolle, T Fig. 62

House tombs 14, 64

Houses, Aegean, 13-19, 31 ;

Greek 19, 183-185

Hulot, J. 80

Hymettiau marble 164

Hypaethral ....88,111,116,132,

143, 165

H3^ostyle 93

Ictinus (architect) .... 94, 109,

112, 117, 131-132

Ilissus, Temple on the, Athens.... 127

Ilium (Troy) .... 13

Impluvium .... 112, 113, 116

Inclinations .... 119, 120, 123-124

Inscriptions 164-166

lonians .... 38, 57, 68, 70, 98-99

PAGE

lomc order. See Bases, Capitals,
Columns, Temples.

Iron, Use of 124

Isopata, Vaulted tomb ... 42, 54

Issus, Battle of the .... .... 160

Italy. See Cumae, Locri, Meta-
pontum, Naples, Paestum,
Pompeii, Rhegium, Rome,
Sybaris, Tarentum ; Etrus-
cans.

Ithaca, Palace of Odysseus .... 38

Ittar, S 53

Jackly. See Euromus.

Juktas, Mt., Sanctuary 43

Juno. See Hera.

Jupiter. See Zeus.

Kakovatos. See Pylos (Tri-
phylian) .

Karnak (Egypt), Columns .... 67

Kawerau, G Plate XV

Koldewey, R 79-80, 176 ;

Fig. 23, 26, 32
Kolumdado. See Nape.

Korakou (Corinth), Aegean

settlement, 13 ; Houses 16, 18

Koumasa, Tholos tomb .... 47

Labrouste, H .... .... 86

Labyrinth 26

Lacinia, epithet of Hera.

Lacunaria. See Coffer.
Laodicea-ad-Lycum, Stadium,

182 ; Theatre 181

Larissa, Proto-Ionic capitals .... 71

Lebadea, Temple of Zeus .... 162
Lemnia, epithet of Athena

Leochares (sculptor) 150

Leontini, colonised 68

Lesbos. See Messa, Mitylene,
Nape.

Lethaby, W. R 141

Leucas, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Cist graves .... .... .... 46

Leucophryene, epithet of Artemis
Lianokladi, Aegean settlement,

13 : Houses.... 17

Libertini, G Plate LXI

Libon (architect) .... 110, 111

Library of Celsus, Ephesus, 176 ;

of Hadrian, Athens .... 166

INDEX

235

PAGE

Lighting of Greek temples 88, 111,
115-116, 132, 143, 165
Light-wells .... 14, 16, 23, 25, 36
Limestone, Eleusinian .... 112, 129

„ Use of 5,26,79,111,115
Lion Gate, Mycenae 40-41, 67, 73, 74
Locri Epizephyrii, colonised, 98 ;

Temple .... .... .... 104

London, British Museum 52, 53, 76,
99, 100, 101, 115, 139, 140-141,
160-152, 168 ; Fig. 18, 38 ;
Plates XIII, XXVII, XXXVIII,
XLIX, LI

Loviot Plate LV

Lycian tombs .... 72, 73-76, 156

Lycians 73, 98

Lycurgus 168

Lydian tombs 73

Lydians 68, 73, 98

Lysicrates, Monument of, Athens

104, 147-149

Lysimachus 173

Macedonian Wars 161

Macedonians 137, 161

Maeander 144

Magsa, House 14

Magnesia-ad-Maeandrum, Altar
of Artemis Leucophryene,

169 ; Stadium, 182 ; Temple
of Artemis Leucophryene,

163 : Theatre 180

Maleme, Vaulted tomb 64

Malia, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Palace 30

Marathon, Battle of .... 77, 99

Marble, Use of 6, 12-13, 61, 102,
106, 111, 112, 113, 115, 129,
154, 167

Markets ... 176

Marquand, A .. . ... 7

Martial, cited .... ... 150, 170

Masonry. See Ashlar, Cyclopean,
Polygonal, Rusticated
masonry.

Massilia, colonised .... 6, 98

Massiliotes, Treasury of, Delphi 107
Mausoleum, Halicarnassus 150-162,

170

Mausolus 150

Megalopolis, Theatre, 167, 168 ;

Thersilion 166, 168

Megara Hyblaea, colonised .... 69

PAGE

Megaron .... 19, 31, 33, 34-35, 36,

37, 38, 62, 68-69, 184
Melos (Phylakopi), Aegean settle-
ment, 11, 12; House urn,

16, 18 Houses, 15, 17 ;

Palace, 38 ; Walls 40

Menidi, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Tholos tomb .... 63, 54, 66

Messa, Temple 164

Messene, Stadium 168

Messina. See Zancle.

Metagenes (architect) 102

Metals. See Bronze, Iron.
Metapontum, Tavole Paladine,

86 ; Temple of Apollo 84, 86

Metopes, 68, 78, 86 ; painted,

64 ; sculptured .... 80, 97,

110, 111, 124, 126-126

Metroum, Olympia 139

Midas, Tomb of, Phrygia .... 73
Mideia, Aegean settlement 13, 42

Miletus, 99, 103 ; Aegean settle-
ment, 12 ; City plan, 171 ;
colonised, 68 ; Temple of
Apollo. See Didyma.

Minerva. See Athena.

Minoan culture .... 9-13, 14-16, 20-

30, 38. 43-44, 47, 54

Minos 9, 12

Minyans 11

Mitylene, Proto-Ionic capital .... 71

Mnesicles (arhcitect) 110, 127, 133
Mochlos, Aegean settlement, 12 ;

House tomb

.... 64

Monopteral

.... 166

Mother of the Gods, Temple of,

Olympia

.... 139

Mouldings

.... 121

Mouliana, Vaulted tomb

.... 54

Mummius, Lucius

.... 161

Munich Museum

62, 88

Murray, A. S

140-142

Music hall. See Odeum.

Mutule

68, 82

Mycenae, Aegean settlement,

11, 13 ; Bridge, 43

Cham-

ber tombs, 18, 46-47 ;

Grave

circle, 45-46 ; Lion

gate.

40-41, 67, 73, 74; Palace,
32-33 ; Shaft graves, 44-46 ;
Temple, 32, 33 ; Tholos
tombs, 47-53, 55, 67 ; Walls

39, 40-41

236

INDEX

PAGE

Mycenaean culture 9-13, 14, 15-
19, 20, 30-37, 39-43, 44-54, 56-56,
69

Myiasa, Corinthian column, 165 ;

Tomb 170

Myra, Theatre, 181 , Tomns 73, 76

Naos. See Celia, Hecatompedos
Nape (Kolumdado) Proto-Iomc

Capital . 71, 72

Naples, colonised . . 58

Naples Museum . . Fig. 38

Naucratis, colonised, 6, 98 ; Tem-
ple of Apollo .. 103-104

Nauplia, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Tombs .... . . 18

Naxian column, Delphi 106

Naxos, Aegean settlement 12

,, (Sicily), colonised . 58

Neandria, Temple 18, 71

Nemea, Temple of Zeus . . 139

Nemesis, Temple of, Rhamnus

88, 121, 126
Nenot .... . . , Fig. 74

Neolithic age . . 10-11, 14

Neptune. See Poseidon.

Nereid Monument, Xanthus 86, 150
New York, Metropolitan Mus-
eum . .. 71, 143 : Plate XVI

Newton, Sir C. T. ... 160

Nicias, Monument of, Athens

149-150, 167
Niemann, G. . . .... Fig 60

Nike Apteros. See Athena Nike.
Nymphaeum, Ephesus . . . . 175

Octagonal buildings 179-180

Octastyle.. 79, 100, 104, 118, 140,
143, 163, 164
Odeum . . 136, 150, 181-182

Odysseus, Palace of, Ithaca 38

Olbia, colonised 6

Olympia, Aegean settlement,

13 ; Gymnasium, 182 ;
Heraeum, 64-66, 68-69 ;

Houses, 16 ; Ionic capitals,

171 ; Palaestra, 182 ; Phi-
lippeum, 147 ; Situation.
94-95 : Stadium, 158 ; Stoa
Poecile or Echo Colonnade,

154 ; Temple of the Mother

PAGE

of the Gods (Metroum), 139 ,
Temple of Zeus, 60, 111-112,

118, Treasuries . . 96

Olympieum (Temple of Zeus
Olympius), at Acragas, 90-
91, 162 : at Athens, 88, 164-
166 ; at Syracuse . 77-78

Olympius, epithet of Zeus.

Opaion .. 88, 116, 132

Opisthodomus, 61, 83, 118 ;

omission of, 83, 86, 139

Opisthonaos. See Opisthodomus
Optical refinements 112-113, 119-121
Orchestra. 135, 167, 180

Orchomenus, Aegean settle-
ment, 13 , Houses, 16 ;
Palace, 37 ; Tholos tomb

50, 51, 65

Order. See Doric, Ionic order
Orientation of temples 61, 113, 127
Orthostates . 66, 69, 80

Paeonius of Ephesus (architect) 142
,, of Mende (sculptor) . Ill
Paestum, Basilica, 67, 84-86,

121 : Temple of Demeter.
84-86 ; Temple of Poseidon

Paintings .. 2], 22, 26, 32, 36, 43,

64, 164, 161

Palaces, Aegean, 20-38 ; Greek

186-186

Palaeolithic age .... . 10

Palaestra . . . .... 182

Palaikastro, Aegean settlement,

12 : House tomb . . .... 54

Palatitza, Palace 185-186

Palermo Museum 80, Plate XVIII

Palmette . 71, 97, 115, 145, 171

Panathenaic frieze .. ... 125

Pandrosus, Sanctuary of, Athens 128
Paphos ... 60

Papworth . . . .... 116

Parapet. 112, 178, 179 ; sculp-
tured 127

Parascenia 168

Parian marble . . .... 61, 106

Pans, Louvre Museum

Plates LI, LII

Paros, Aegean settlement, 11 ;

Houses .. . .. .. 16

Parthenon, Athens 87-88, 110,
117-126, 136

INDEX

237

PAGE

Partheuos, epithet of Athena.
Patara, Theatre . 181

Pausanias, cited 46, 50, 64, 65, 66,
95, 103, 111, 112, 114, 117, 125,
126, 127, 129, 130, 133, 134, 135,
139, 147, 176
Payava, Tomb of, Xanthus 75

Pedestals, 106, 112, 118, 166, 168,

178 ; sculptured 141-142, 143
Pediments, sculptured 88, 97, 107,
110, 111, 125, 126, 127, 160
Peloponnesian War 137

Pennethorne, J 119

Penrose, F. C. Ill, 119, 121, 123,
164, 166

Pentastyle 63

Pentelic marble .. 61, 112, 113, 129
Perga, Stadium, 182 ; Theatre.... 181
Pergamum, Altar of Zeus, 144,
168-169 ; annexed to Rome,

161 : Stoa of Athena Polias,

169; Temple of Athena
Polias, 109, 162 ; Temple of
Dionysus, 162 ; Theatre,

180 ; Vaulted tumulus . .. 171

P&ricles 7, 108-109, 110

Peripteral ... . ..62

Peristyle . . 28, 36, 62, 183, 184-186,
186

Perrot, G. ... 34, 36, 67

Persepolis, Palace and tomb of
Darius, 72 : Persian capitals 71
Persians . 71, 77, 87, 88, 99, 108,
135, 137-138, 160
Petsofa, Sanctuary .... ... 43

Phaestus, Aegean settlement, 12,

20; Palace . 23, 27-29, 30

Phidias (sculptor) ... 110, 117, 126

Phigalia. See Bassae.

Philon of Eleusis (architect) 132,

146, 166

Philip of Macedonia . .. 147, 160

Philippeum, Olympia .... ... 147

Phocaea, colonised 58

Phoenicians . . ... 58, 59

Phrygian tombs . .. 73, 156

Phrygians ... 58, 59, 73, 98

Phylakopi. See Melos.

Piers .... 14, 16, 22, 28, 91, 168,
170

Pilasters (see also Antae) . .146,
168

Pinacotheca. Athens 134

page

Pinara, Theatre, 181 ; Tombs ... 76

Piraeus, Arsenal . 164-166

Pisistratus ... 88, 105, 164

Pit graves 44-46, 61

Plataea, Battle of .... .... 77

Plinth 139. 143-144

Pliny, cited . . 101, 140-142,

160-162

Plutarch, cited 132, 136

Podium .. . 76, 142, 148, 150-161,

167, 168-169, 170
Polias, epithet of Athena.

Pollux. See Castor.

Polychromy . .. 16, 26, 33, 35,

46, 62, 66, 79-80, 88, 106, 107,
163

Polyclitus the Elder (sculptor) 111,
126

Polyclitus the Younger (archi-
tect) 147, 167

Polygonal masonry 41, 126, 176
Pompeii, colonised, 68 ; Ionic
capitals, 171 ; roof tiles .... Ill

Pontremoli, E 169, Plate XLIX

Poseidon, 60 ; sea and trident
mark, Athens, 127, 128-129 ;
Temple at Paestum, 92-93 ;
Temple at Sunium . .. 126

Poseidonia. See Paestum.

Posticum. See Opisthodomus.
Praxiteles (sculptor) .. ... 66

Priene, Altar of Athena Polias,

169; City plan, 171-172 ;
Houses, 184 ; Pedestals.

188 ; Propylaeum, 168 ;

Temple of Athena Polias,
139-140; Theatre . 180

Primitive period .. 8

Private houses, Aegean, 13-19,

31 ; Greek .. . 19. 183-186

Prodomus . .. 16, 18

Promachos, epithet of Atliena.
Pronaos 36, 61, 62, 69

Proportions (see also Chronologi-
cal list of Greek temples)
of columns. 67, 77, 83, 86,

87, 92, 101, 126, 129, 136,

139, 162, 166 ; of plans, 65,

77, 80, 82, 83, 86, 87
Propylaea . .. 28, 33, 36, 68,

121, 133-134, 136, 166, 167-168
Propylaea, epithet of Artemis.
Propylon 21, 32, 33, 34, 36

238

INDEX

PAGE

Proscenium . . - 158, 180

Prostyle .... .. . 79, 84, 127, 128

Proto-Doric columns (Egyptian) 67
Proto-Ionic capitals See Capitals.
Prytaneum ... . . 176, 186

Pseira, Aegean settlement .. 12

Pseudo-dipteral .... 83. 143, 163, 164
Pseudo-peripteral .. . 90, 166

Pteroma .... .... 80. 82. 83

Pteron 151, 170

Puchstein, O .... 79-80

Punic Wars .... .... 160-161

Pylos (Messenian), Aegean

settlement, 13 ; Shaft graves 44

Pylos (Triphylian), Aegean
settlement, 13 ; Tholos

tombs .... .... 48, 66

Pyramid .... .... 160, 162, 170

Pythius (architect) 139, 160

Quadriga 80, 162

Quarries, Mt. Pentelicus, 61 ;

Selinus 79

Rakhmani, Aegean settlement,

13 ; Houses .... 16, 17

Reber, F. .... 36, 63 ; Plate IX
Refinements .... 112-113, 119-121

Regula 68

Reliefs, 40-41. See also Columnae
caelatae, Frieze, Parapet,
Pedestals, Metopes, Stelae.
Religion (see also Gods).... 43. 69-61

Rhamnus, Temple of Nemesis
(later), 121, 126 ; Temple of

Nemesis (older) ' 88

Rhea 69

Rhegium, colonised .... .... 68

Rhodes, Aegean settlement, 12 ;

colonised 69

Rini, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

House 16

Rock-cut tombs .... 18, 46-47,

73-76

Roma and Augustus, Temple of,
Ancyra, 166 ; Temple at

Athens 166

Roman repairs .... 128, 130, 132,

143

Romans 160-161

Rome, Capitolium, 165 ; Portico

of Cneius Octavius.,.. .... 114

PAGE-

Rooi construction 115,155-156

Roof tiles 66, 88, 102-103, 111,
115-116, 156, 159
Roofs, Forms of ... 13-18, 32, 35, 37,
46, 75, 88, 147, 149, 181-182
Rotunda. See Tholos.

Rusticated masonry ... 178, 181

Sagalassus, Temple of Antoninus

Pius .... . .. .. .... 166

Salamis, Battle of .... 77, 99

Samos, 98, 99 ; Temple of Hera 60,
104, 143

Sanctuaries, Aegean, 43-44 ;

Greek .... 94-96, 132-133,

166-167

Sanctuary of the Bulls, Delos 169-170
Sarcophagi .... 51, 162-153

Sarcophagus tombs 76

Sardis, captured by Persians, 99 ;

Temple of Artemis-Cybele.... 60,
142-143

Satyrus (architect) 160

Scamilli impaves .... 122, 124

Scene building . . 135, 157, 168,

180-181

Schliemann, H 9, 31, 32, 33, 46

Scopas (sculptor) .... 139, 160

Scotia 129, 144

Sculptors. See Agoracritus,
Alcamenes, Bryaxis, Calli-
W machus, Leochares, Paeo-
nius, Phidias, Polyclitus,

’ Praxiteles, Scopas, Timo-
theus.

Sculpture. See Reliefs, Statues.
Secular architecture, Greek 134-135,
147-150, 154-159, 171-186
Segesta, Temple, 93, 121 ;

Theatre .... ... ... 181

Seleucidae 146, 175

Selinus, City plan, 171 ; colo-
ns nised, 59 ; destroyed, 137 ;
Ionic votive capital, 161 ;
Megaron, 62 ; quarries, 79 ;
Temple "A,” 79 ; Temple
" B,” 79, 161 ; Temple

" C,” 79, 80-82 ; Temple
" D,” 68, 79, 82-83 ; Temple
" ER,” 79, 83 ; Temple
" FS,” 79, 83 ; Temple

“ GT,” 79, 83-84, 86, 121 ;
Temple " O ” .... 79, 80

INDEX

239

PAGE

Sepulchral architecture 44-55, 71,
73-75, 97, 150-154, 156, 170-171
Serapis, Temple of, Taormina .. . 162
Seriphos, Aegean settlement . 13

Serradifalco, Duca di . . ... 79

Sesklo, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Houses 16, 19

Shaft graves 44-46

Shrines .... .... .. 33, 146

Sicily. See Acrae, Acragas,
Camarina, Catana, Gela,
Himera, Megara Hyblaea,
Leontini, Naxos, Segesta,
Selinus, Syracuse, Taormina,
Zancle ; Carthaginians.

Side, Theatre 181

Sidon, 58 ; Sarcophagi from 152-163

Sima 102, 107, 111

Smope, colonised 6

Siphnians, Treasury of, Delphi

84, 106-107

Siphnos, Aegean settlement .... 13

Sitia, Aegean settlement, 12 ;

House .. 16

Siva, Tholos tomb .... .. 47

Sminthe, Temple of Apollo

(Smintheum) 163

Smith, J. K Plate XXX

Smyrna, colonised 58

Smythe, R. H Plate XXV

Sparta, Aegean settlement, 13,

39 ; supremacy of 137

Spata, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Tombs 18

Specifications 154-166

Stadium 158-169, 182

Stage 180-181

Staircases .... 14-15, 20, 25, 28,
30, 33, 42, 91, 93, 112, 128, 146,
166, 169

Statues (see also Caryatids,

Pediments) .... 69-61, 62, 66,

94, 98, 103, 110, 112, 113, 118,
126, 126, 133, 146, 160, 162,
161, 168

Stelae 46, 80, 97, 163-154

Stereobate 65

Stevens, G. P 7, 131 ; Fig. 49

Stevenson, J. J 162

Stoa .... 94, 106, 121, 164,169,

176-179

Stone, Earliest examples of
peripteral temples in, 77-

page

87 ; Greek timidity in use

of 67-68, 78

Strabo, cited 143

Stratos, Temple of Zeus 121, 139
Streets .... 147, 172, 174-175

Stuart and Revett 127, 147 ; Plates
XL, LIV

Stucco .... 26, 33, 36, 46, 79-80,

88, ill

Stylobate . . . . .... 65

Sulla 135, 164, 165

Sunium, Temple of Poseidon .... 126
Superposed columns .... 88, 93,

111, 118, 147, 154, 169, 178-179

Susa, Persian capitals 71

Sybaris, colonised 6

Syra, Aegean settlement ... 13

Syracuse, colonised, 6. 58, 59,

77 ; supremacy of, 137 ;
Temple of Apollo, 77-78 ;
Temple of Athena, 92 ;
Temple of Zeus (Olym-

peum), 77-78; Theatre ... 181
Syria. See Antioch, Sidon, Tyre ;
Phoenicians, Seleucidae.

Taenia 68

Tamossos (Cyprus), Tomb .... 71
Taormina, Temple of Serapis,

162; Theatre 181

Tapering columns. Downward,

27, 30, 34, 41, 52, 67;
Upward .... 27, 83, 84, etc.

Tarentum, colonised 69

Tavole Paladine, Metapontum.... 86
Tegea, Temple of Athena Alea

138-139

Telamones (Atlantes) 90

Telati de Dalt (Balearic Islands),

Column 27

Telesterion, Eleusis .... 93-94, 121,

131-132, 146, 166, 166
Telmessus, Theatre, 181 ; Tombs 75
Temenos. See Enclosures of
Greek temples.

Temples (see also Gods), Corin-
thian, 164-166 ; Doric, 32,

33, 63-70, 77-93. 111-126,
135-136, 138-139 161-162;
Ionic, 70-72, 99-104, 126-
131, 136-136, 139-146, 162-
164, 166 ; Origin of 61-63, 68

240

INDEX

PAGE

Teos, Temple of Dionysus ... 163

Termessus, Theatre . . 181

Terra-cotta 63-64, 66, 68. 96, 103,
156

Tetrastyle 127, 128, 146, 150, 168.

169

Theatral area ... .. 26

Theatres .... 134-135, 147, 148, 149,

150. 156-158, 180-181
Thebes. Aegean settlement, 13 ;

supremacy of .. . . 137

Thebes (Egypt), Columns . . 67

Thermum, Aegean settlement,

13 ; Houses, 16, 17 ; Temple
of Apollo . . 63-64, 68

Theron, Tomb of, Acragas 170-171
Theodorus of Phocaea (architect) 147
Thera, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Houses ... - . . 16

Thersilion, Megalopolis . 166, 168

Theseum, Athens 125-126, 136

Theseus, 13 ; Sanctuary of,

Athens ... 126

Thessalian culture 10-11

Tholos 147, 166

Tholos tombs . . . . 14, 47-64

Thoricus, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Stoa, 121 ; Tholos tomb 48, 65
Thrasyllus, Monument of, Athens 160
Timber. See Wooden columns,
entablatures, origin.

Timotheus (sculptor) .. . . 150

Tiryns, Aegean settlement, 11,

13 : Cist graves, 44 ; Doric
capital, 87 ; Houses, 31 ;
Palace. 30-31, 32, 33-37 ;
Tholos tomb, 66 ; Walls 39, 40,
41-42

Tombs, Aegean, 44-65 ; Asiatic,

71, 73-76, 166; Greek, 97,

160-164, 170-171
Torus .... 72, 129, 130, 144

Tower of the Winds, Athens 179-180

Tralles, Theatre 181

Transitional period .... 7,76-77

Treasuries 47, 62, 94, 96-97, 106-
107

Trigl3rph frieze, Aegean, 27, 36,

53 ; Greek 66, 68, 78, 86,
162, 167, 169, 179

Tripoli e culture 11

Tristyle 134, 141

PAGE

Troy, Aegean settlement, 10, 11-
13 : Houses, 17, 18 ; Palace,
31-32 ; Walls . .. 39-40

Trunnel . .68

Trypiti, House .. . . 14

Tsangli, Aegean settlement, 13 ;

Houses . ... ... 15

Tumulus ... 11, 46, 47, 64, 73, 171

Tylissos, Aegean settlement, 12 ;

Palace . 30

Tyre . 58

Ukrainians . . . 11, 54

Ulmann ... Plate XLVI

Vaphio, Tholos tomb . 51, 56

Varvakeion statuette of Athena 126
Vault (see also Barrel- vault and

Corbelled vaults) . .. 117

Venus. See Aphrodite.

Victory. See Athena Nike.

Vitruvius, cited 68, 88, 101, 110,
114, 119, 122, 124, 135, 143,
161, 163, 166, 167, 182, 184-186
Volutes 27, 70-72, 101-104, 106-
106, 114, 116, 129-130, 144, 145,
149, 168, 163, 164, 168, 171
Votive capitals and columns 71-72,
94, 106-106, 139, 154, 161
Vulcan. See Hephaestus.

Wace, A J. B 12

Walls, Aegean, 38-43 ; Greek

(see also Masonry) . .... 175

Watt, J. C Fig. 36

Weir, R. S 130, Fig. 64

Wiegand, T Fig. 66

Windows .. 15, 128, 130-131, 134,
177-178

Winds, Tower of the, Athen 179-180
Wingless Victory. See Athena
Nike.

Wood, J. T. 99, 140, 172, 174, 176,
183

Wooden columns, 14, 16, 18, 23,

26, 26-27, 30, 34, 36, 62, 63,

64, 66, 67 ; entablatures,

63, 65, 68, 72, 73-75 ; origin
of Doric order, 67-69 ; ori-
gin of Ionic order, 70-76 ;
origin of Lycian tombs 73-75, 156

INDEX

241

PAGE

Xanthus, Nereid Monument, 86.

150 ; Tomb of Payava, 76 ;
Tombs . . . 74

Xenocles (architect) ... 132

Xerxes 94, 103, 143, 146

Xoanon . . . 60, 61

Yakh. See Euromus.

Zakro, Aegean settlement .... 12

Zancle, colonised .. . . 58

Zanth, L. 79-80

Zeno (architect), 181 ; Statue of,

Olympia .. HO, 112

Zeus, 69-60 ; Altar of, Perga-
mum, 144, 168-169 ; Temple

at Acragas, 90-91, 162 ;

Temple at Aezani, 164 ;
Temple at Athens, 88, 121,
164-165 ; Temple at Leba-
dea, 162 ; Temple at Nemea,

139 ; Temple at Olympia,

60, 111-112, 118 ; Temple
at Stratos, 121, 139 ; Tem-
ple at Syracuse .... 77-78

Zeus Olympius, Statue of, Olym-
pia, 110, 112 ; Temple at
Acragas, 90-91, 162 ; Tem-
ple at Athens, 88, 121, 164-
165 ; Temple at Syracuse 77-78

Zoophoros 102, 107

Zygouries, Aegean settlement,

13 ; Houses 15

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together, each £2 net.

VoL. III. THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAIS-
SANCE IN ITALY. By William J, Anderson,
A.R.I.B.A. Revised and Enlarged, with an additional
Chapter on Baroque and Later Work by Arthur Stratton,
F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. With 80 Plates (including 16 in Collo-
type) and 120 illustrations in the Text. Large 8vo, cloth.
21s. net.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE IN
FRANCE. By W. H. Ward, M.A., F.R.I.B.A. Revised
and Enlarged by Sir John W. Simpson, K.B.E., P.P.R.I.B.A.
Large 8vo, cloth, in two volumes, 21s. net each, or £2 the set.

VoL. IV. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE (1495-1640). With
about 240 illustrations.

VoL. V. THE LATER RENAISSANCE (1640-1830). With
about 240 illustrations.

VoL. VI. EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN
ENGLAND. By J. Alfred Gotch, F.S.A., P.P.R.I.B.A.
New Edition in preparation.

VoL. VII. THE ENGLISH HOME FROM CHARLES I.
TO GEORGE IV. By J. Alfred Gotch, F.S.A.,
P.P.R.I.B.A. A History of English Domestic Building
during the Later Renaissance, with about 300 illustrations.
Large 8vo, cloth, gilt. 30s. net

THE SERIES forms the most comprehensive, up-to-date, and
finely illustrated yet issued on its subject, and must prove
indispensable to the Student or Practitioner of Architecture
and of great interest to the general reader.

THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE

From the Earliest Ages to the Present Day. By P. Leslie
Waterhousb, F.R.I.B.A. With Illustrations of the g^eat build-
ings of all time from Photographs and Drawings, and many
Diagrams in he Text. Small 8vo, boards, lettered. 6s. net.

ELEMENTS OF FORM AND DESIGN IN CLASSIC
ARCHITECTURE. Shown in Exterior and Interior Motives
collated from Fine Buildings of all Time. By Arthur Stratton,
F.S.A., F.B [.B.A. Presenting in 80 full-page Plates about 600
motives of Fa 9 ades, Loggias, Halls. Staircases, etc. Including
Series of 16 Plates of Classic and Renaissance Compositions and
Designs. With Introduction, Analytical Account to each Section,
Descriptive .Notes, and Foreword by Prof. A. E. Richardson,
F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. 4to., cloth, gilt, 28s. net.

THE SMALLER ENGLISH HOUSE FROM THE
RESTORATION TO THE VICTORIAN ERA, 1660-1840.
By A. E. Richardson, F.S.A., F.R.I B.A., and Harold Donald-
son Eberlein, B.A. Treating of the Characteristics and Periods
of Style ; the Evolution of Plan ; Materials and Craftsmanship :
Roofing, Windows, Ironwork, Fireplaces, Staircases, Wall Treat-
ment, Ceilings. With over 200 Illustrations, many full page, from
Photographs and Drawings. Demy 4to, cloth, gilt. 25s. net.

A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE IN LONDON

Arranged to illustrate the Course of Architecture in England to
the Middle of the XVII Ith Century, with a Sketch of the preceding
European Styles. By Walter H. Godfrey, F.S.A. Containing
250 Illustrations, with Collotype Frontispiece, and 7 Folding
Maps, including an annotated guide to all the Buildings shoivn.
8 vo, cloth, gilt. 10 s.net.

ENGLISH CHURCH FITTINGS, FURNITURE
AND ACCESSORIES. By the Rev. J. C. Cox, LL.D„ F.S.A.
A Popular Survey, treating of Churchyards, Bells, Fonts and
Covers, Pulpits, Lecterns, Screens, Chained Books, Stained Glass,
Organs, Plate and other features. With upwards of 250
Illustrations from Photographs and Drawings. 8 vo, cloth, gilt.
21 s. net.

ENGLISH CHURCH WOODWORK AND FURNI-
TURE. A Study in English Craftsmanship down to the Middle
of the XVIth Century. By F. E. Howard and F. H. Crossley,
F.S.A. Illustrating, in over 325 examples from Photographs,
the Development of Screens, Stalls, Benches, Font-Covers, Roofs,
Doors, Porches, etc., with details of the Carved and Painted
Decoration, etc., etc. Second Edition, revised and enlarged ( 3 rd
Impression). Crown 4to, cloth, gilt. 35s. net.

ENGLISH CHURCH MONUMENTS, A.D. 1150-1550.

By F. H. Crossley, F.S.A. A survey of the work of the
old English craftsmen in stone, marble, and alabaster. Contain-
ing over 250 pages, with upwards of 350 Illustrations, from special
Photographs and Drawings. Crown 4to, cloth, gilt. £2 net.
MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE.

Its Origin and Development. By Kingsley Porter, Architect
Containing 1000 pages of Text, illustrated by 291 Plates from fine
Photographs or Drawings. Two vols., large 8 vo, buckram, gilt.
10 s. net. . .

Vol. I. THE TRANSITION, Contents : — ^Early Christian
and Byzantine Periods — ^Lombardic and Carolingian Beginnings —
Study of Origins of Romanesque and Gothic — Principles, etc.,
of Later Styles, _ ^

Vol. II. EVOLUTION OF THE GOTHIC STYLE. Contents:
Influences of Normandy — The lie de France — ^The Culmination —
The Flamboyant Style — ^The Coming of the Renaissance.

YPRES : THE HOLY GROUND OF BRITISH

ARMS. By Lieut-Col. Beckles Willson. A short, interesting
Sketch of the History of Ypres, with a vivid account of the five
years’ fighting in the Ypres Salient. Illustrated by Photographs,
Maps, and old Views, 8 vo, art paper wrappers. 3s. net.

ENGLISH HOUSES AND GARDENS IN THE

XVIIth and XVIIIth. CENTURIES. A Series of 61 Bird’s-eye
Views from the Engravings by Kip, Badeslade, Loggan, ete.
Selected, with Introductory and Descriptive Notes, etc., by M. E.
Macartney, F.S.A. Oblong 4 to, half vellum. 21s.net.

ENGLISH GOTHIC CHURCHES

The Story of their Architecture. By Charles W. Budden, M.A.
An easy and handy guide for the amateur to the Parish and Larger
Churches of England. Containing 137 pages with 53 full page and
smaller line illustrations in the Text from Drawings, Sketches,
Plans, etc., and 40 half-tone Plates comprising 80 subjects from
Photographs, etc., making 130 illustrations in all. Crown 8vo,
cloth, lettered, 7s. Gd. net.

OLD GROSSES AND LYCHGATES

A Study of their Design and Craftsmanship, By Aymer Val-
LANCE, M.A., F.S.A, With over 200 fine Illustrations from
specially taken Photographs, Old Prints, and Drawings. Crown
4to, art linen. 18s. net.

ENGLISH MURAL MONUMENTS AND TOMB-
STONES. A Collection of Eighty-four Full-page Photographic
Plates of Wall Tablets, Table Tombs, and Headstones of the
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, specially selected by Her-
bert Batsford, for the use of Craftsmen. With an Introduc-
tion by W. H. Godfrey, F.S.A. Crown 4to, cloth, gilt. 15s. net.
THE “COUNTY CHURCH’* SERIES

Edited by the Rev. J. C. Cox, LL.D., F.S.A. Twelve volumes,
each containing numerous plates from Photographs, and Illus-
trations from Drawings in the text. Small 8vo, cloth, gilt. 3s.
net per volume.

CAMBRIDGESHIRE AND THE ISLE OF ELY. By C.* H.

Evelyn-White, F.S.A.

CORNWALL. By J. C. Cox, LL.D., F.S.A.

CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND. By J. C. Cox,
LL.D.. F.S.A.

ISLE OF WIGHT. By J. C. Cox, LL.D., F.S.A.

KENT (2 Vols. sold separately). By F. Grayling.

NORFOLK (2 Vols.). Second Edition, revised and extended.

By J. C. Cox, LL.D., F.S.A. {Now out of print.)
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE. By J. C. Cox, LL.D., F.S.A.
SURREY. By J. E. Morris, B.A.

SUFFOLK (2 Vols. sold separately). By T. H. Bryant.

HEXHAM AND ITS ABBEY

By C. C. Hodges and J. Gibson. Am account of the Town and its
Abbey. With 156 pages and 45 Illustrations from Photographs,
Prints, and Drawings. Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. net.

OLD ENGLISH COTTAGES AND FARM-HOUSES

A Series of Volumes illustrating minor Domestic Architecture in
England. Each contains 100 Photographic Plates, in Collotype,
with Descriptive Notes and numerous Sketches. Crown 4to,
art canvas, gilt. 36s. net each.

1. KENT AND SUSSEX. Photographed by W. Galsworthy

Davie and described by E. Guy Dawber. \_Now out of print.

2. SHROPSHIRE, HEREFORDSHIRE, AND CHESHIRE.

Photographed by James Parkinson and described by
E. A. OULD.

3. THE COTSWOLD DISTRICT. Photographed by W. Gals-

worthy Davie and described by E. Guy Dawber.

\Now out of print.

4. SURREY. Photographed by W. Galsworthy Davie and

described by W. Curtis Green.

5. OLD HOUSES AND VILLAGE BUILDINGS IN EAST

ANGLIA— NORFOLK, SUFFOLK, AND ESSEX. By
Basil Oliver. [Now cut of print.

FRENCH PROVINCIAL ARCHITECTURE

As shown in various examples of Town and Country Houses,
Shops and Public Places. By Philip Lippincott GooDwm
and Henrv Oothovt Milliken. 60 Plates, reproduced from
special Photographs and Measured Drawings, from the earliest
Norman type to 1820, printed in Collotype. With Introductory
and Descriptive Text. Small folio, half-bound. £3 lOs. net.

THE ELEMENTS OF CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE
AND EXAMPLES OF THE FIVE ORDERS. A Portfolio
containing 70 Plates, from Drawings by G. Gromort, illustrating
the Orders, with details of Capitals, Mouldings, Plans and Eleva-
tions of Classic and Renaissance Buildings in Greece, Rome, and
elsewhere. Titles, etc., in French. Imperial 4to, in portfolio.
25s. net.

EXAMPLES OF CLASSIC ORNAMENT FROM

GREECE & ROME. From the Originals by Lewis Vul-
LIAMY. Containing 20 Plates illustrating many fine examples,
with Descriptive Notes by R. Phen^; Spiers. Folio, in strong
portfolio. 12s. 6d. net.

THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE : GREEK,
ROMAN AND ITALIAN. By R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A.,
F.R.I.B.A. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Containing
21 pages of Text, 27 full-page Plates, including 7 specially prepared
for this work by the Author, and 12 illustrations in the Text. This
Series has for many years established itself as one of the most
important works on the Orders, and the Plates are well adapted
to use by Students. Large 4to, half-cloth, lettered. 12s. 6d. net.

CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE

A Series of 10 Plates illustrating t 3 ^ical examples of the Greek
and Roman Orders from the Author’s specially executed drawings,
showing full detail and a selection of Classic Ornament. With
a Descriptive Letterpress. An invaluable standard work for Class
and Personal Study. Large folio, in Portfolio, 10s. 6d. net ; set
of 10 Plates without Text or Portfolio, 8s. net.

LITTLE KNOWN TOWNS OF SPAIN.

A series of water colours and drawings, beautifully reproduced in
facsimile colour and monochrome from the originals of Vernon
Howe Bailey, comprising 67 full-page plates, many in colour,
others in sepia, wash, lithography, etc., with text including Ms-
torical and descriptive short notes. Large 4to, in decorative
paper binding, £Z 10s. net. Bound in cloth, gilt, £Z 16s. net.

The author, as the result of his travels and researches, has pro-
duced a work full of fascination and charm, in which are repre-
sented many picturesque hill towns, ^eat fortresses, wide rivers,
and stately bridges. His bold and vigorous watercolours give a
clear-cut impression of the sunlit colour of many small un-
touched towns and show a very characteristic fresh aspect of
Spain.

RAFFLES DAVISON, Hon. A.R.I.B.A., Draughts-
man, Writer and Editor. A Record of His Life and Work,
including a Selection of his Drawings and Sketches. Edited by
Maurice E. Webb and Herbert Wigglesworth. A mem-
orial volume issued to commemorate the work of this fine draughts-
man, including about 117 of his Architectural, Decorative and
Landscape sketches, with appreciations by Sir Aston Webb, Sir
Reginald Blomeield, etc., etc. 4to, half-bound. 21s. net.

THE ART AND CRAFT OF GARDEN MAKING

By Thomas H. Mawson, Garden. Architect, and Prkntice Maw-
son. Fourth Edition, thoroughly revised and much enlarged.
With hundreds of Illustrations, full page and smaller, many new
to this Edition, in Colour and from Photographs, plans, measured
drawings, and sketches of old and modern gardens, features,
detail, etc. Including a special revised list of plants and shrubs.
Folio, cloth. £3 1 5s. net.

GARDEN GRAFT IN EUROPE

By H. Inigo Triggs, F.R.I.B.A. An Historical Account of
European Garden Design, tracing its course from the times of
Classic Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century. Containing 330
pages with over 200 Illustrations from Photographs, Engravings,
and Drawings, with 13 Collotype Plates. Large imperial 8vo, art
linen, gilt. £2 2s. net.

GARDENS IN THE MAKING

By Walter H. Godfrey. A simple Guide to the Planning of a
Garden. With upwards of 70 Illustrations of Plans, Views, and
various Garden Accessories. Crown 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net.

THE WELL-CONSIDERED GARDEN

By Louisa Yeomans King. With an Introduction by Miss
Gertrude Jekyll. An attractive account of Garden Arrange-
ment and Colour Schemes, containing 50 garden views from
special Photographs, and some plans of garden beds. New Edition
revised, with further Illustrations. Large 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d, net.

THE OLD GARDENS OF ITALY: HOW TO VISIT
THEM. By Mrs. Aubrey le Blond. An Illustrated Guide-
Book for Travellers. With 100 Plates from Photographs specially
taken by the Author. Small 8vo, cloth. 5s. net.

MAN’S PREHISTORIC PAST

A Popular Survey of its Scenes, Life and Remains, in the Old
World and the New. By Professor H. Wilder, Ph.D. Contain-
ing Chapters on River Teixaces, etc. ; Rock Shelters —Paintings —
Lake Villages; Pre-History; Types of Prehistoric Man, etc. With
450 Pages and 110 full-page Illustrations. Large thick 8vo,
doth, gilt. 25s. net.

ENGLAND IN TUDOR TIMES

An Account of its Social Life and Industries. By L. F. Salzman,
M.A., F.S.A. Author of " English Industries of the Middle
Ages,” etc. A remarkable survey of a great period in England's
Social history. Containing chapters on The Spirit of the Tudor
Age — ^Life in the Country — ^Life in the Town — ^Life in the Home —
The Church — ^Adventure on Land and Sea. With 138 pages of
text, 64 full-page illustrations and plentiful illustrations in the
text from drawings, engravings, etc. Demy 8vo., cloth. 7s. 6d. net.

PROVERB STORIES OF MANY LANDS

By Lucile Berk. 12 Stories, each written round an historical
figure, recounting an adventure, and summed up in a proverb.
With 4 full-page Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth, lettered.
7s. 6d. net.

ROUND THE WORLD IN FOLK TALES

A Regional Treatment. By Rachel M. Fleming, 16 Tales from
Iceland, Mexico, Africa, Australia, etc., told in a fresh, easy style.
With 17 Illustrations from Prints, Drawings, and Photographs,
8vo, boards. 2s. net. Cloth, 3s. net.

TOURING ENGLAND, BY ROAD AND BY-WAY

By Sydney R. Jonks. A Handy Guide in a New Form to the
Beauties of Rural England. Comprising 20 suggested Tours,
described with maps and covering the whole of England, illustrated
by 54 specially executed pen drawings by the Author and 50
photographic illustrations on 22 plates, making over 100 pictures
in all. Indispensable for the Motorist, Cyclist and Tourist on
Foot. Crown 8vo, cloth, lettered. 7s. 6d. net.

THE XVIIIth CENTURY IN LONDON

An Account of its Social Life and Arts. By E. Bbrbsfoko
Chancellor. Containing 280 pages, with 192 Illustrations,
printed in sepia, from prints and drawings by contemporary
artists. With a Frontispiece in Colour. Crown 4to, cloth, gilt.
Now offered at 25s. net.

“ From every point of view, literary and artistic, the book is a delight to turn over and
to read ; and author and publisher alike are to be heartily congratulated on an achievement
which is worthy of the best traditions of British book-production.” — The Daily Telegraph.

A Companion and sequel to the above.

LIFE IN REGENCY AND EARLY VICTORIAN

TIMES. An Account of Social Life in the day^ of Brumvnel
and D’Orsay. By E. Beresford Chancellor. A Series of
Chapters on the time of Brummel and D’Orsay, 1800-1843. With
numerous Illustrations from Rare Prints and Original Drawings.
Large 8vo. cloth, gilt. 25s. net.

“ A most readable piece of social history .” — Morning PosU

“Mn Chancellor writes well. . » . We have seldom seen collected together so fasci-
nating a profusion of plates.” — Spectator.

THE “ ENGLISH LIFE ” SERIES

THE ENGLISH COUNTRYSIDE

By Ernest C. Pulbrook. A Review of some of its Aspects,
Features, and Attractions. With 126 Illustrations from Photo-
graphs, including a Frontispiece by A, E. Nbwcombb. Second
edition, revised. Large 8vo, cloth, gilt. 12s. net.

ENGLISH COUNTRY LIFE AND WORK

An Account of some Past Aspects and Present Features. By
Ernest C. Pulbrook. Containing about 200 pages on Farmers,
Old and New — Field-Work — Cottage Folk — ^The Village Craftsman
— Religious Life, etc. With about 200 artistic Illustrations from
special Photographs. Large 8vo, cloth, gilt. 16s. net.

“ Wo may congratulate the author on a very readable and well-illustrated book. He has
given a fairly detailed description of a large number of occupations of the English country
labourer and village dweller. . . . Such industries as thatching and hurdle-makmg Me
described at some length, and there are good pages on country methods of trading. — The
Field.

OLD ENGLISH HOUSEHOLD LIFE

Some Account of Cottage Objects and Country Folk. By Ger-
trude Jekyll. Consisting of 17 sections on the Fireplace, Candle-
light, the Hearth, the Kitchen, Old Furniture, Home Industries,
Cottage Buildings, Itinerants, Mills, Churchyards, etc. With 277
Illustrations from Photographs and Old fWnts and Drawings.
Large thick 8vo, cloth, gilt. 21s. net.

“ None can read it without enjoyment, and few without enlightenment. As to the
collector, he must not be without it .” — Illustrated London News.

THE ENGLISH INN, PAST AND PRESENT

Ey A. E. Richardson, and H.D.Eberlein. Treating of the Inn m
Mediaeval, Tudor, Georgian and Later Times, Interiors, Signs,
Coach Travel, suggested Tours, etc. W^ith about 200 Illustrations
from Photographs, Prints, Engravings and Drawings by Row-
landson, Hogarth, Pollard, Aike n and Shepherd, among other
artists. Large 8vo, cloth, gilt. 21s. net.

THE "PEOPLE’S LIFE AND WORK” SERIES
LIFE AND WORK OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE
THROUGH THE CENTURIES. A Pictorial. Record from
Contemporary Sources. By Dorothy Hartley and Margaret
M. Elliot, B.A. (Lond.). Each volume is devoted to a separate
century and contains 32 pp. of Text and about 150 pictures on
48 full-page Plates, of Household Life, Crafts and Industries,
Building, Farming, Warfare, City and Country Scenes, Transport,
Children, Church Life, Gardens, etc. With an Introduction
on the characteristics of each period, full Descriptive Notes.
Historical Chart, Anal 3 rtical Index, Music, etc. Large (royal)
8vo, boards, lettered. 4s. 6d. net per volume, or bound in cloth,
5s. 6d. net per volume.

The scheme of the Senes is as follows : —

1. LIFE AND WORK OF THE PEOPLE FROM THE
CONQUEST TO 1300.

II. THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.

III. THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.

•IV, THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

V. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

VI. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

The first two volumes are now ready : —

LIFE AND WORK IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
LIFE AND WORK IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

“A delightful collection of contemporary pictures largely taken from manu-scripts.
Of recent years we have had a bewildering output of picture-books, but we do not know
of any on such a scale as this, cheap enough to find their way into the actual possession
of children." — The MancJiester Guardian.

“ HOME AND WORLD ” SERIES.

Qvo. cloth, lettered, 5s. net each ; or 4 vols. for 19s. net.

HOW WE ARE FED

A Geographic^ Reader. By J. Franklin Chambbrlain, Ed. B.,
S.B., Containing 32 Short, Bright Talks on : Oyster Farming —
A Loaf of Bread — A Rice Field — ^A Cup of Cocoa — ^A Cranberry
Bog — ^How Dates Grow, etc. With 93 Photographic Illustrations.

HOW WE ARE CLOTHED

A Geographical Reader. By J. F. Chamberlain. Containing
28 Blight Talks on ; By the Dykes — Island Dwellers — Where
the Raincoat Grows — A Spool of Thread, etc., etc. With 85
Photographic Illustrations, many full-page.

HOW WE ARE SHELTERED

A Geographical Reader, dealing with Homes in Cliffs ; A Pueblo
Home ; Indian Homes ; Life in a Loghouse ; Lumbering ; How
Bricks are Made ; etc. With over 70 typic^ Illustrations from
Photographs, many full-page,

HOW WE TRAVEL

A Geographical Reader. Including 24 chapters on the Making
of Roads ; TLe Variety of Trains in Different Countries ; A Jour-
ney in a Jiniiksha ; Travel in China ; Automobiles ; Steamships ;
^ships ; How the ly^l is delivered ; Wireless, etc. With 60
interesting Photographic Illustrations, many full-page.

ELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL ARTS

By L. L. Winslow, Specialist in Industrial Training, New York
Department of Education. Practical and historical instruction on
Book production. Papermaking, Basket-making, Brick, Pottery,
Concrete, Textiles, Copper, Iron and Steel, Soap, Glass, Wood,
Woodworking, etc. With 335 pages and 187 illustrations from
Photographs and Drawings. Demy 8vo, cloth. 6s. net.

A HISTORY OF EVERYDAY THINGS IN ENG-
LAND, 1066 - 1799 . Written and Illustrated by Marjorie and
C. H B. Quennell. In Two Volumes. Medium 8vo. 8s 6d.
net each ; also issued bound in one volume, 16s. 6d. net.

This account of the English People in their everyday life, of
their occupations and amusements during seven centuries, may
be read with enjoyment by all interested in the life of Great
Britain. The book appeals strongly to Students, Designers, and
those interested in Building, Decoration, and Costume,

“ A model of book production, exquisite in type, in line drawing, in colour printing.” —

The Time%.

Vol. I.— EVERYDAY THINGS IN ENGLAND FROM
1066 - 1499 . With 90 Illustrations, many full-page, and 3 Plates
in Colour. Fourth Impression.

' Contents : — ^Norman England and its People : Conditions
before the Conquest — Norman Castles — ^Monasteries — ^The Domes-
day Survey — ^The Peasantry. England in the Thirteenth
Century : Costume — Monks and Pilgrims — ^Early English Halls
and Manor Houses — ^Warfare in the Middle Ages — ^Farms and
Gardens — ^Amusements. The Fourteenth Century : Manners,
Customs, Food, and Dress — Ships and Sea Battles — ^Travelling —
The Black Death. Life in Fifteenth Century England :
The Merchant Adventurers — ^Houses and Furniture — ^Hunting
and Jousts — Games, Mysteries and Morris Dancers — ^Dress,
Jewellery, and Ornaments — End of the Mediaeval Period.

Vol. II.~EVERYDAY THINGS IN ENGLAND
FROM 1500-1799. By Marjorie and C. H. B. Quennell.
With 4 Coloured Plates and 111 other Illustrations from the
Author’s Drawings. Third Impression, revised and corrected.

Contents : — ^The Sixteenth Century : The Reformation — Ships
and Sea Power — Effect of the Renaissance on Everyday Things —
Homes and Furniture — Costumes— Schools — Games — ^Hunting
and Archery — ^The Theatre. The Seventeenth and Eighteenth
Centuries : Costume — Ships — Food and Choking — Gardens —
Musical Instruments — Coachesand Sedan Chairs-— Characteristics.

Issue in Parts for Schools and Class Teaching.

The work is now obtainable in Six Separate Parts, each covering
a period of history of about a century, appropriate for a term's
study. Each part has its own Title, Contents, and full Index ;
the Illustrations are all given, and the coloured plates and com-
pararive charts are also included. Bound in stiff paper covers
(with the original special design), at 3s. net each part.

Part 1. ENGLAND UNDER FOREIGN KINGS (1066-1199).
Containing 2 Colour Plates, 5 full-page line Illustrations,
and 1 5 in the Text.

Part II. THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT (1200-1399). Con-
taining 2 Colour Plates, 18 full-page Illustrations, and 22
in the Text.

PART III. THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1400-1499).
Containing 1 Colour Plate, 11 full-page line Illustrations,
and 1 3 in the Text. ^

PART IV, THE AGE OF ADVENTURE (1500-1599). Con-
taining 2 Colour Plates, 16 full-page line Illustrations,
and 30 in the Text.

Part V. THE CROWN'S BID FOR POWER (1600-1699).
Containing 1 Colour Plate, 11 full-page line Illustrations,
and 21 in the Text.

Part VT. THE RISE OF MODERN ENGLAND (1700-1799).
Containing 1 Colour Plate, 11 full-page line Illustrations,
and 1 9 in the Text.

THE EVERYDAY LIFE SERIES
A Graphic and Popular Survey of the Efforts and Progress of the Human
Race. Now completed in Four Vols. Crown Qvo, Moth. 55. net. each.

EVERYDAY LIFE IN THE OLD STONE AGE
Written and Illustrated by Marjorie and C. H. B. Quennell,
Containing 128 pages, including 70 Illustrations, and a Coloured
Frontispiece, from the Authors' Drawings, with a Chronological
Chart.

The authors have planned a series on the Everyday Life of
Humanity. In this volume they have presented the longest
and oldest periods of man as a story full of human interest.
We see the animals which man hunted and fought, are carried
back to the family life of the cave mouth, and realise the way the
old peoples lived, wandered, and vanished. The illustrations
show implements ; heads of the chief human types ; hunting
methods ; evolution of spears, darts, needles, etc. ; early artists,
etc.

“ A small book containing much substance. ... A vivid, simple style and sprightly
humour — ^which last is carried even into their clever black-and-white illustrations — should
jiw them many appreciative readers. ... A most attractive little book.” — The Mornint

EVERYDAY LIFE IN THE NEW STONE, BRONZE
AND EARLY IRON AGES. Written and Illustrated by
Marjorie and C. H. B. Quennell. Containing 144 pages,
with 90 original Illustrations from the Authors' Drawings, of
Household Life, Agriculture, Pottery, Weapons, Ornaments, etc.
Including 2 Plates in Colour, a marked Map, and a Chronological
Chart.

The authors show how these people prepared their food, visualise
the early smiths, and the coming of Weaving and the Wheel.
There is a careful and interesting account of the life, art, and
industry of a Lake Village. The story covers a period rich in
human achievement.

The above two works may now be obtained bound in one handy
volume, as described below :

EVERYDAY LIFE IN PREHISTORIC TIMES

Containing 272 pages, 3 Plates in Colour and 2 in Monochrome,
with 160 Illustrations from the Authors' Pen and Ink Drawings,
two Chronological Charts and a Comparative Map. The Old
Stone Age Section has an Account of the Rhodesian Skull and
Nebraskan Tooth, with 2 additional Illustrations. Crown 8vo,
duxeen, lettered. 10s. net.

EVERYDAY LIFE IN ROMAN BRITAIN

Written and Illustrated by Marjorie and C. H. B. Quennel.
Containing 128 pages, with over 100 original Illustrations from the
Authors' Pen Drawings, of Cities and Camps, Villas, Ships, Chariots,
Monuments, Costume, Military Life, Household Objects, Pottery,
&c. Including 3 Colour Plates, Chart, and Map of Roads.

The Authors have produced simply and concisely a fascinating
picture of the activities of the conquering race, their Towns and
Camps, Shops, Churches, Basilicas, Baths, Military Routine,
Roadmaking, and of their household life reconstructed from many
varied appliances. There is a monograph on Silchester with many
original reconstructions, and a chapter on Rome’s position in the
world empires.

** The illustrations are very good, and add much to the value of the book, which is as
entertaining as it is instructive.” — The Westminster Gazette.

EVERYDAY LIFE IN ANGLO-SAXON, VIKING
AND NORMAN TIMES. Written and Illustrated by RIar-
jORiE and C. H. B. Quennell. Containing 115 pages under three
section-headings, with 2 full-page plates in colour and 78 illustra-
tions in pen and pencil, many full-page, of Ships, Cooking, Metal-
work, Caskets, Crosses, Buildings, P 9 ttery, Illuminated M.S.S. etc.
with an Historical Chart.

This volume, which completes the " Everyday Life Series,” gives a
vivid picture of the domestic life of these times and an account
of such branches of their activity as building, utensils, crafts,
art, etc. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s. net.

" We heartily commend the volume and the series to all teachers .” — The Teachers’
World.

THE HOMES OF OUR ANCESTORS

An Authentic and Intimate Account of the Colonial Period in
America, by R. T. H. Halsey and E. Tower. Over 300 pages
with 20 full-page plates in Colour and 217 from Photographs.
Cloth, gilt, paper sides. £3 10s. net.

ITALIAN FURNITURE AND INTERIORS.

A Collection of 200 very fine full-page Plates from Photographs of
Italian Interiors and Furniture, both Mediaeval and Renaissance.
With descriptive text by George Leland Hunter (New York),
Complete in 4 parts. Folio, in handsome cloth portfolio.
complete ; or in 4 instalments of £3 per Part. Supplied only in
complete sets.

The wealth of material still remaining from the sumptuous
period of the Italian Renaissance has never hitherto been ade-
quately presented. Mr. Hunter has chosen his examples from
the most important private and public collections, and the plates
illustrate complete Interiors, with their architectural settings
and decorative accessories, as well as fine individual pieces of
Furniture, Chests, Chairs, Tables, Cabinets, reproduced to a
large scale showing details of workmanship.

THE ENGLISH FIREPLACE

By L. A. SijEUFFREY. Illustrated by a series of examples (chiefly
Renaissance) on 130 full-page Collotype Plates, from Photo^aphs,
with 200 Text Illustrations from Sketches, Measured Drawings,
and Photographs. Small 4to, art linen, gfilt. £2 10s. net.

THE DECORATIVE WORK OF ROBERT AND

JAMES ADAM . Being a Reproduction of all the Plates illustrat-
ing Decoration and Furniture from their " Works in Archi-
tecture,” published 1778-1812. Containing 30 large foho Plates
(size 19in. by 14 in.), giving about 100 examples of Rooms, Ceilings,
Chimneypieces, Tables, Chairs, Vases, Lamps, Mirrors, Pier-glasses,
Clocks, etc., etc. Large folio, bound in old style. £1 15s. net.

RENAISSANCE ITALIAN PLASTERWORK

By Ardinno Colas anti. A Series of 192 fine Plates of large-
scale Reproductions of Modelled and Painted Ceilings and Vaults.
With brief Italian Introductory Text. Small folio, art linen, gilt.
30s. net.

ENGLISH FURNITURE AND DECORATION
1680-1800. Illustrated in a Series of Photographic Plates
selected and arranged, with brief Introduction by G. Montague
Ellwood. With 200 Plates, comprising over 300 Examples of
Interiors, Doors, Ceilings, Chimney-pieces, Chairs, Tables, Cabinete,
Bookcases, Settees, etc., etc. New Impression. 4to, cloth, gilt.
30s. net.

ENGLISH DECORATIVE PLASTERWORK OF

THE RENAISSANCE. A Review of its Design from 1500 to
1800. By M. JouRDAiN. Containing in six sections a Complete
Survey of Modelled Ornament from the 16th to the 19th century,
illustrated by 115 large scale photographic plates, and numerous
reproductions of Measured Drawings, Sketches and Old Designs,
comprising in all over 250 examples of Elizabethan, Stuart, Geor-
gian and Adam ceilings, friezes, overmantels, panels, ornament,
detail, etc. The whole forms an invaluable collection of the finest
English Renaissance Modelled Ornament. Medium 4to, cloth,
gilt. 30s. net.

“ We have nothing but respect for the scholarly and artistic qualities of this book, which
should take a permanent place in the library of artistic achievement in England.” —
Oliver Brackett in The Observer.

THE FOUR VOLUMES OF

BATSFORD’S LIBRARY OF DECORATIVE ART

form an attractive Series of remarkable scope and completeness.
It reviews the Development of English Decoration and Furniture
during the three Renaissance Centuries, XVI., XVII., and XVIII.
(1500-1820). Each volume has an extensive series of Plates, and
is a complete guide to the work of its Period.

The division is into three great periods — ^which may be broadly
called Elizabethan ; Stuart and Georgian ; and Classic, with a
separate volume each for Stuart Furniture and Decoration. The
volumes are remarkable for thd beauty and number of their
illustrations, the simplicity and clearness of their arrangement,
and their moderate prices. The complete series of four volumes
is published at prices amounting to £11 3s., but is supplied for
the present at the special price of £10 10s. net.

EXTRACTS FROM PRESS NOTICES OF THE SERIES

•* These handsome volumes with their extremely fine and copious illustrations provide a
iuU survey of English Furniture and Decoration.” — The Times.

“ While the pages, both printed and pictorial, are scrupulously factful, the authors write
with such charm that the reader is able to visualise something of the social life of the
period, for the English home is inextricably interwoven with the English character. On
the technical side also the volumes are notable. Stately in form, they are models in respect
of binding and printing, and the numerous and valuable illustrations are of the highest
order of reproduction.” — The Glasgow Herald.

BATSFORD'S “LIBRARY OF DECORATIVE ART” (DIVN. I)
DECORATION AND FURNITURE IN ENGLAND
DURING THE EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1500-1660. An
Account of their Development and Characteristic Forms during
the Tudor, Elizabethan and Jacobean Periods, by M. Jourdain.
Containing 20 Chapters ; comprising about 300 pages, and over
200 full-page Plates (with Coloured Frontispiece and some in
photogravure), including over 400 Illustrations, from specially
made Photographs and Measured Drawings, and from Engravings.
With a Foreword by Colonel Edward F. Strange, O.B.E., Keeper
of Woodwork at the Victoria and Albert Museum. Folio (size-
14 X 1 O^in.) , cloth, gilt, £3 net.

After an Introduction on the social life of the period. Miss Jourdain
traces foreign influences, and gives a section on aU Decorative
Features as : Interiors ; Colour-Decoration ; Panelling and Car-
ving ; Doors ; Chimney-pieces ; Staircases ; Ceilings and Deco-
rative Detail in Plaster, Metalwork, Glazing, etc. Under Furni-
ture, the characteristic illustrations show design and form in
Tables, Chairs, Cabinets, Chests, Beds, Sideboards, Cupboards, etc.
'• A vivid and valuable work on a very interesting period.” — The Manchester Guardian.
'* The material is handled with mastery and sympathy, and the illustrations give
exactly what is wanted.” — The Times Literary Supplement.

“ Sumptuous alike in print, paper, and Illustrations, it is a delightful possession, and a
desirable- book of reference.” — The Field.

BATSFORD’S " LIBRARY OF DECORATIVE ART ” (DIVN. II).

FURNITURE IN ENGLAND FROM 1660 TO 1760

By Francis Lengyon. A Survey of the Development of Its
Chief Types, Containing 300 pages with over 400 Illustrations,
printed in sepia, from special Photographs, together with 5 in
Colours. Second Edition, revised, with many new Illustrations.
Folio (14 in. X 10 Jin.), handsomely bound in cloth, gilt. £2 10s
net.

Contents : — ^The Dutch and French Influence, 1660-1715 —
The Venetian Influence, 1715-1743 — The Rococo, Chinese and
Gothic Fashions, and the Classical Reactions, 1740-1760 — Chairr.,
Stools, and Settees, with Upholstery — Beds, Cornices, and Cur-
tains — Tables — Bookcases and Cupboards — ^Pedestals and
Brackets, Stands for Cabinets — ^Mirrors — Clock Cases — ^Veneer
and Marquetry — Gesso — Silver Furniture — Lacquer,

“ . . . Like the other works of this senes, it is magnificently illustrated. The plates
form the finest series of representations of late seventeenth and early eighteenth centurv
interiors and their component parts that have been collected together in any work of a
similar character. The examples selected are not only typical, but typical of the best.” —
The Connoisseur.

DECORATION IN ENGLAND FROM 1640 TO 1760

By Francis Lengyon. A Review of its Development and
Features. Containing 300 pages with over 350 Illustrations, of
which 1 33 are full-page, printed in sepia, from special Photographs,
and 4 in Colours. Second Edition (third impression), revised,
rearranged and enlarged. With many additional illustrations.
Folio (14 in. X 10 J in.) handsomely bound in cloth, gilt. £2 10s. net.

Contents Decoration, 1660-1715, 1715-1740, 1745-1770—

Woodwork and Panelling — ^Wood-Carving — Door-Cases — Chimney-
pieces — ^The Hall and Staircase — Decorative Painting — Plaster-
work — Firebacks, Andirons and Grates — Door Furniture — ^Ijght-
ing.

“ The volume must rank as one of the standard works on the period treated, and there
are few, if any, among them so well informed, so exhaustive in their treatment, or so
superbly illustrated." — The Connoisseur.

“ Photographs and plates as perfect as they can be made are grouped in sections following
the introduction. The furniture-lover will feel stimulated as his pet weakness and
his most cherished style will great him and wonders beside ready to convert him to
other loves." — The Morning Post.

BATSFORD’S “ LIBRARY OF DECORATIVE ART " (DIVN. Ill) .

DECORATION AND FURNITURE IN ENGLANP
DURING THE LATER XVIIIth CENTURY, 1760-1820 ,
An Account of their Development and Characteristic Forms, by
M. JouRDAiN. Containing 15 Chapters ; comprising about 300
pages, with over 180 full -page Plates (a selection in collotype),
including over 400 Illustrations, from specially made Photographs
and Measured Drawings, and from Engravings. With a Foreword
by Professor A. E. Richardson, F.R.I.B.A. Folio (size 14X 10 Jm)
cloth, gilt. £3 3s. net.

Contents: Introduction — Decoration — Interiors- — Artists and
Craftsmen — ^Materials and Processes — Decorative Painting — Chim-
ney-pieces — ^Doors — ^The Hall and Staircase — Plaster- work —
Work — Lighting Fittings — ^Furniture : Its Development —
Materials — ^Methods and Processes — Types — ^Metal Fittings.

most important ground of all. It is perhaps sufficient to say tnat me aumor na& rtecu lo
the occasion. Many beautiful rooms oy the less-known architects me included which have
never before been Illustrated. Altogether this book is a fine volume on a s ub ject
never before adequatelv treated. Professor Richardson supplies an excellent introduc-
tion,”— Professor C. H.' Reilly, F.R.I.B.A.. in The Manchester Guardmn.

An Illustrated Catalogue of THE LEVERHULME
PERMANENT ART COLLECTIONS, compris-
ing Three Sumptuous Monographs by World-
famous Authorities

The Volumes are of a Royal Quarto size, sumptuously bound in
buckram, gilt, and offered at the exceptionally advantageous price
of ;^lo 15s. the set for a limited edition. The volumes will not be
sold separately, and can never be reissued once the small number
for sale is exhausted.

I. ENGLISH PAINTING OF THE XVIIIth, XIXth, &
XXth CENTURIES, with some examples of other
SCHOOLS. By R. R. Tatlock, Editor of The Burlington
Magazine. With an Introduction by Roger Fry. Con-
taining 170 pages, with 127 Plates, including 14 in Photo
gravure.

II. CHINESE PORCELAIN AND WEDGWOOD POT-
TERY, with other works of ceramic art. By R. L.
Hobson, B.A., Keeper of the Department of Ceramics,
British Museum. Containing 230 pages with 103 Plates,
including 30 in Full Colour, and a Number of Line Diagrams,
Marks, etc.

III. ENGLISH FURNITURE, TAPESTRY & NEEDLE-
WORK, with some examples of other styles. By
Percy Macquoid, R.I., Author of " A History of English
Furniture,” etc. Containing 170 pages with 116 Plates,
including 1 1 in Full Colour.

BATSFpRD’S COLLECTORS’ LIBRARY

A Series of Handbooks written by experts, providing information
of practical value to Connoisseurs, Collectors, Designers, and
Students. Each volume forms an ideal introduction to its sub-
ject, and is fully illustrated by Reproductions in Colour and from
Photographs. 8vo, cloth, gilt. I^ce 8s. 6d. net each, excepting
the two marked.*

*OLD ENGIjISH furniture. By F. Fenn and B. W^yllie.
With 94 Illustrations. New Impression. 10s. &d. net.
old pewter By Malcolm Bell. With 106 Illustrations.
SHEFFIELD PLATE. By Bertie Wyllie. With 121
Illustrations.

FRENCH FURNITURE. By Andr6 Saglio. With 59
Illustrations.

DUTCH POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. By W. P.

Knowles. With 54 Illustrations.

•PORCELAIN. By William Burton. With over 50 full-
page Plates illustrating 87 fine examples of the Porcelain
of Various Countries and Periods. New Impression.
10s.6ii.net.

FRENCH POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. By H. Frantz.

With 77 Illustrations (Now out of print's.

ENGLISH TABLE GLASS. By Percy Bate. With 254
Illustrations. {Now out of print.)

ENGLISH EMBROIDERY. By A. F. Kendrick. With
64 Illustrations. {Now out of print.)

MOOT POINTS

Frtendly disputes upon Art and Industry between Walter Crane
and Lewis F. Lay. 90 pages, with eight amusing Caricatures of
Walter Crane. Demy 8vo, in paper wrapper.

A HISTORY OF ENGLISH WALLPAPER

From the earliest Period to 1914. By A. V. Sugden and J. L.
Edmondson. Comprising 270 pages on Wallpapers’ ancestry —
Early Wallpapers — Eighteenth Century Developments — Famous
Pioneers — Chinese Papers and English Imitations — ^Late Georgian
Achievements — ^The Coming of Machinery — How Wallpaper
“ found itself " — ^The Coming of William Morris — ^Developments
of Taste and Technique — Mill Records. With 70 plates in colour
and 190 Illustrations in half-tone. Large 4to, handsome Art
Buckram, Gilt boxed. £3 3s. net.

“The History of Wallpapers was well wcarth recounting, and the handsome quarto
proves to be an even more interesting record than one could have imagined. The pro-
duction of so handsome a volume has obviously entailed not only much labour, but
some generosity, for the purchase price, even over a large edition, would hardly justify
so lavish a use of illustrations of this quality. — The Yorkshire Post.

ENGLISH INTERIORS FROM SMALLER HOUSES
OF THE XVIIth TO XIXth CENTURIES, 1660-1820. By
M. JoURDAiN. Illustrating the simpler type of Design during the
Stuart, Georgian, and Regency Periods. Containing 200 pages,
and 100 Plates, comprising 200 Illustrations, from Photographs
and Measured Drawings of Interiors, Chimney-pieces, Staircswes,
Doors, Ceilings, Panelling, Metalwork, Carving, etc., from nunor
Countiy and Town Houses. With Introduction and Historical
Notes. Large 4to, cloth, gilt. 24s. net.

Contents : — ^Decoration, 1660-1725. Decoration : Palladian —
Rococo. The Classic Revival and Regency, 1760-1820. Pro-
portion of Rooms — ^Hall and Passage — ^Windows — ^The Staircase —
Walls — ^Doors — Chimney-pieces — Ceilings.

•• The work Is remarkably well illustrated ; the plates show detaUs of o^ng and
moulding with great cleaimess. Miss Jourdain has divided her work into section^ each
dealing with a particular feature of the interior, and the illustrations are arranged m chrono-
logical order. Her text is always lucid and informative.” — The Connoisseur.

THE DECORATIVE ARTS IN ENGLAND, 1660-
1780. By H, H. Mulliner, with an Introduction by J. Starkib
Gardner. A Series of 1 10 fuU-page Plates from Photographs
trating 256 Specimens of Furniture, Lacquering, Marquetry, and
Gesso, Chandeliers, Clocks ; Stuart and Georgian Silver — Sconces,
Cups, Bowls, Tea and Coffee Sets — Enamels, Locks, Battersea
Enamel, Ormolu Vases. Tapestry, Needlework, Bookbindmgs.
With brief Historical Introductions and full descriptions. Foho,
half-parchment, gilt, £3 10s. net.

*■ Sumptuously printed and lavishly illustrated, emphatically one of the few books that
really count in the collector’s library.” — The Observer.

OLD ENGLISH FURNITURE

Its Characteristics, Features, and Detail from Tudor Times to
the Regency. For the use of Collectors, Designers, Students, and
Others By J. T. Garside. I. THE OAK PERIOD, 1500-1630.
Containing 30 Plates reproduced from the Author’s specially pre-
pared Drawings illustrating about 400 details of Table Legs ; Bed-
posts ; Corbels ; Finials ; Turned Feet ; Carved Friezes ; Moulded
Capitals ; Panels : Linenfold, Carved, Arched, Geometrical ,
Inlay Motives, Metal Fittings, etc. Including also Dra^gs
of type-pieces of the period and a Senes of 20 Photographic Illus-
trations. With an Historical Introduction, Accounts of ea^ ty;^
of Piece and Feature, and Descriptive Notes. 8vo, cloth, gilt.
10s. 6d. net.

“ The volume explains the styles and charactOTstio details with a
and wealth of graphic illustration that cannot but repay attention. The book ^r^bly
serves the purposes of a reader out to train his eye m recognismg form. —The Scotsman.

COLOURED ORNAMENT OF THE HISTORIC

STYLES. A Series of 180 fine Plates in Three Parts, from the
Original Water-Colours by Alexander Speltz.

Part I. THE CLASSIC ERA (Prehistoric, Egyptian, Middle-
East, Cretan, Greek, Etruscan, Roman, Buddhist, and
Early Christian Ornament).

Part II. THE MIDDLE AGES (Byzantine, Russian, Celtic,
Romanesque, Scandinavian, Spanish, French, English,
Netherland, Italian and German Gothic Ornament).

Part HI. THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD (Ornament of the
Italian, French, English, German, and Flemish Renaissance,
Grotesque and Rococo, Classic and Empire Styles, etc.).
Each Part contains 50 pages of Text and 60 Plates showing about
350 subjects, well reproduced in colour and mounted on semi-stifi
boards. Three volumes, in stout cloth portfolios with flaps, large
4to, 30s. net each volume or 4s. the set. Also obtainable
bound, in 3 volumes, stout buckram, 35s. net per volume, or the
set.

THE STYLES OF ORNAMENT

From Prehistoric Times to the Middle of the XIXth Century.
A Series of 3500 Examples Arranged in Historical Order, with
Descriptive Text. By Alexander Speltz. Revised and Edited
by R. Phen^: Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Containing 560 pages,
with 400 full-page Plates exhibiting upwards of 3500 separate
Illustrations. Large 8vo, cloth, gilt. 20s. net.

Mr. Walter Crane, in a lengthy review in the Meunchester Guardian, wrote : “ . . . To
pack into a single volume of some 626 pages and 400 illustrations a really intelligible
account of the styles of ornament prevailing in the world from prehistoric times to the
middle of the nineteenth century is A remarkable feat, . . The illustrations are for the
most part well chosen and characteristic, and are drawn with decision and facility.

A HANDBOOK OF ORNAMENT

With 3000 Illustrations of the Elements and the Application of
Decoration to Objects, e.g. Vases, Frets, Diapers, Consoles, Frames,
Jewellery, Heraldry, etc., and grouped on over 300 Plates, repro-
duced from the Author’s specially prepared drawings. With
Descriptive Text to each subject. By Professor F. Sales Meyrr.
Large 8vo, cloth, lettered. 16s. net.

** lx 13 A Library, a Museum, an Encyci.op.sdia, and an Art School in one. To
RIVAL IT AS A book OF REFERENCE ONE MUST FILL A BOOKCASE. The quality of the
drawings is unusually high, and the choice of examples is singularly good. . . The tfxt is
well digested, and not merdy descriptive or didactic, but an admirable mixture of example
and precept. So good a book needs no praise.” — The Studio.

A HISTORY OF ORNAMENT.

In 2 Volumes. Large 8vo, cloth, gilt. 24s. net each ; or 2 vols.
45s. net.

I. ANCIENT AND MBDLEVAL. By A. D. F. Hamlin.

An Account of the Decorative Arts in Primitive, Cla.ssic,
Byzantine, and Mediaeval Times, to 1500. Containing up-
wards of 800 Illustrations, from Photographs and Drawings,
including 22 special full-page Plates (400 Figures), 7 in
Colour, showing Details, Metal-work, Furniture, Textiles,
Mouldings and Tracery, Pottery, etc.

II. RENAISSANCE AND MODERN. By A. D. F. Hamlin.

Decoration in Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, and
England from 1500 to the 20th century. With 50 full-
page Plates from Photographs and Drawings, comprising
150 Illustrations, and about 280 line Illustrations, etc., and
a series of 23 Plates, 4 in Colour, illustrating 350 figures
of Detan.

fulfils its purpose as forming a concise and weii-proportioned introduction
to the history of the rise and development of Renaissance ornament.” — The Connoisseur.

THE ART WORKERS’ STUDIO

A Periodical Publication of Art, Old and New. Each Part contains
about 20 Plates, finely produced in Colour, from the Decorative
Art of Historic Periods and from the Designs of Modern Artists.
The Series includes Decorative Designs ; Ceramic Work ; Embroid-
deries ; Enamels ; Textiles ; Mural Decoration ; Carpets ; Inlay ;
Tapestry, etc., and from the quality and variety of the Designs
should prove indispensable to Schools, Designers, Manufacturers,
Decorative Artists, Collectors, and Amateurs of Art. Large 4to
in an Ornamental Paper Cover, 12s. 6d. net each part ; the com-
plete year containing 4 parts, ^ 10s. net.

Nos. 1-6 now available separately. Volume xxvii, comprising
Nos. 1-4, New Series, bound in cloth, ^ 15s. net.

A SHORT HISTORY OF ART FROM PREHIS-
TORIC TIMES TO THE XIXth CENTURY. Translated
from the French of Dr. ANDiufe Blum. Edited and Revised by
R. R. Tatlock. Illustrated by 128 full-page Photographic
Plates, comprising about 250 examples of the finest Painting,
Sculpture, Architecture, and Decorative Art of Early, Classic,
Byzantine, Gothic, Renaissance, and Recent Times. Including
also about 80 Illustrations in the Text from Drawings, Engrav-
ings, and Plans. Medium 8vo, cloth, gilt. 21s. net.

A MANUAL OF HISTORIC ORNAMENT

An Account of the Development of Historic Architecture and
Decorative Art for students and Craftsmen. By Richard Glazier.
Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged, containing 700 illustrations,
chiefly from the author’s original drawings with various new plates
to this edition and an additional series of half-tone plates. Royal
8vo, cloth, lettered. 12s. 6d. net.

" It is now the ideal manual for the student and craftsman for in it he can trace the
phases and developments of the art of all nations, from remote times up to the present
day .” — TM Decorator.

BURLINGTON MAGAZINE MONOGRAPH— I.

CHINESE ART.

Now out of print. Further volumes in preparation.

The fiist volume on CHINESE ART is now out of print. Copies
can be occasionally supplied for 35s. net.

BURLINGTON MAGAZINE MONOGRAPH— II.

SPANISH ART

An Introductory Review of Architecture, Painting, Sculpture,
Textiles, Ceramics, Woodwork, Metalwork, by Royall Tt^er,
Sir Charles Holmes and H. Isherwood Kay, Geoffrey Webb,
A. F. Kendrick, B. Rackham and A. van de Put, Bernard
Bevan, and P. de Artinano, respectively. With a General Intro-
duction by R. R. Tatlock, Editor of The Burlington Magazine, a.nd
about 280 large scale illustrations. Published under the Direction
of The Burlington Magazine, the book combines in one volume a
study of the Art of Spain in all its branches by the foremost
authorities on the subject. Royal 4to, cloth. 2s. net.

“ A rich book, both in the multitude of its illustrations and as a concise encyclopaedia
of information .” — The Daily News,

OLD MASTER DRAWINGS . ^ ^

A quarterly magazine for Students and Collectors. Edited by
K. T. Parker. Print Room, British Museum. Each number
contains 16-20 plates of little-known drawings by great mastem
from Museums and Private CoEections all over the world, witn
articles and notes on each by the best-known authorities. Demy
4to, 5s. 6d. net, post free each number. Annual Subscription
21s. net, post free. , ^

Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5 now available separately. Volume 1, com-
prising first four numbers, bound in cloth, 25s. net.

EARLY FLEMISH PAINTINGS IN THE RENDERS

COLLECTION. Exhibited at the Flemish Exhibition, Burling-
ton House. January 1927. With an Introduction by G. Hulin
DE Loo and Descriptions of the Paintings by Edouard Michel.
Containing 6 Mounted Plates in Full Colour and 18 Plates in
Photogravure of paintings in the Collection of M. Renders
of Bruges, including intensely interesting and little-known works
by such Masters as Rogier van der Weyden, Memling, Jean Provost,
Mabuse, etc., etc. Large 4to, in Portfolio. ;£3 3s. net. or bound
in cloth, gilt, £'^ 10s. net. Edition strictly limited to 300 copies.

“ With the book in his hands he will be a dull reader indeed who cannot in a com-
paratively short time familiarise himself with several distinct aspects of the history of
Flemish paintings." — The Daily Telegraph.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FINE ARTS

A Review of the Development of Architecture and the Decorative
Crafts. Containing : Classical and Mediaeval Architecture ;
The Renaissance ; Modem Architecture ; Sculpture ; Painting ;
Landscape Design ; City Planning ; The Industrial Arts ; and
Music. By C. Howard Walker, Ralph Adams Cram, H. van
B. Magonigle, Lorado Taft, F. L. Olmsted, and others. 482
pages, illustrated by about 250 Works of Art from Photographs
and Drawings. Large 8vo., cloth, gilt, 18s. net.

MURAL DECORATIONS OF POMPEI

By Pierre Gusman. A Series of 32 full-page Plates, finely
printed in Colour in facsimile of the Author’s water-colours.
Comprising about 50 examples of the finest and most typical
Pompeian colour-work. 4to, in portfolio. £2 10s. net.

HISTORIC TEXTILE FABRICS

By Richard Glazier. Containing : Materials — ^The Loom —
Pattern — ^Tapestries — Dyed and Printed Fabrics — Church Vest-
ments. etc., with about 100 Plates from Photographs and from
the Author's Drawings, including 4 in Colour, and 43 Line Diagrams,
illustrating over 200 varieties of Textile Design. Large 8vo, cloth,
gilt. 21s. net.

The book should be in the hands of all artists, teachers, students, designers, and
salesmen, and the general public would be the richer for a close study of such an admirable
work, which will bring about a greater appreciation of the work of the past and have a
stimulating efiect upon work of the present and the future /* — Journal of Textile
InsiituUa

POPULAR WEAVING AND EMBROIDERY IN

SPAIN. By Mildred Stapley. Including Chapters on Plain
and Fancy Weaving, Tassels and Fringes, Applique, Embroidery :
White, Black-and- White, and Coloured ; Drawn-work, Filet Lace,
etc. Illustrated by 3 Plates in Colour, and 118 from Photographs,
comprising upwards of 150 examples, chiefly of the XVI-XVIIIth
, Centuries. With 20 Diagrams of Stitch Workings. Small 4to,
art canvas, gilt. 32s. net.

FLORAL FORMS IN HISTORIC DESIGN

Drawn by Lindsay P, Butterfield, Designer, with Introduction
and Notes by W. G. Paulson Townsend. Containing 30 Plates
in Collot 3 rpe and Line, showing about 100 Decorative Adaptations
of the Rose, Carnation, Fruit Blossom, etc., from Eastern and
European stuffs, and from old Herbals. Large folio, in portfolio,
15s. net.

COSTUME.

By Kathemne M. Lester, Director of Art Instruction, Public
Schools, Peoria, lU. lUustirated by Ila M. MacAfee. 244 pages
and about 100 Illustrations from S^culpture, Gems, Vases, Tapes-
tries, etc. With Frontispiece in Colour. Octavo, cloth, lettered.
12s. 6d. net.

A Panorama of Three Centurxes oj Fashionable Dress

HISTORIC COSTUME

A Chronicle of Fashion in Western Europe, 1490-1790. By
Francis M. Kelly and Randolph Schwabe. Containing the
chief characteristics of Dress in each century. Illustrated by
some hundreds of full-page and text Sketches from original sources
by Randolph Schwabe of typical groups, figures, and details.
Including 7 Plates specially reproduced in Colour, and 70 Photo-
graphic reproductions of Historic Pictures, Portraits, Scenes, etc
Large 8vo, cloth, gilt. 25s. net.

“ Intended primarily for the costumier, film producer, and artist, it is full of delight for ■

the ordinary reader, who will find it an excellent help in the pleasant game of trying to

construct a livelier vision of the past .” — The Queen,

THE REGIONAL COSTUMES OF SPAIN

An Illustrated Review of the National and Traditional Dress of her
Provinces. By Isabel de Palencia. Treated under 32 section-
headings, with 4 plates in colour and 241 illustrations in half-tone
on 186 Plates from actual photographs. Paintings by well-known
artists, old prints, etc. The whole forms a complete gallery of
Spanish Peasant Costume which should appeal to all interested
in the Decorative Arts. Large 8vo, cloth, lettered. 28s. net.

A CENTURY OF FRENCH FASHION AND COS-
TUME (1800-1900). A Miniature Portfolio of 80 Plates,
coloured by hand, giving a panorama from the Regency to pres-
ent times, in 4 complete quarter-century sections. Square 8vo,
in small portfolio, artistic boards. 20s. net.

BATIKS AND HOW TO MAKE THEM

By Pieter Mijer (New York). With 20 full-page Plates from
Photographs of ancient Javanese and modern Dutch and American
Batiks, and of Tools and Equipment, etc. Imperial 8vo, cloth.
10s. 6d. net.

DESIGNS FOR SWISS FILET LACE

{Les Denielles de Gruyire), Containing 36 full-page Collotype
Plates with over 100 desi^s, by the lace makers of Gruyire in
Switzerland, in historic and modem styles. Oblong 4to, stiff
paper covers, lettered. 14s. net.

OLD DUTCH POTTERY AND TILES.

By Elizabeth Netjrdenburg. Translated by Bernard Rack-
ham. With 112 Illustrations, of which 8 are in Colour, of Drug
Jars, Bowls, Jugs, Vases, Tile Pictures, and single examples in
various Styles, in Delft and other renowned Dutch Wares. With
Chapters on all chief Varieties and Factories, Lists of Marks,
Bibliography, etc. A Limited Number of Copies offered at a
very advantageous reduced figure. Thick 4to, linen, gilt. /4 4s.
net ; offered for £2, 2s. net.

MASTERPIECES OF ORIENTAL RUGS

By W. Grote-Haselbalg, translated by G. Barry Gifford.
Illustrated in 120 finely Coloured Plates of carpets, prayer rugs,
vshaks, tentbags, etc., from Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Russia,
Turkestan, China and elsewhere. With a brief Illustrated Intro-
duction and full analytical and Descriptive Notes. 3 Vols.
8vo, Text half-bound and Plates in portfolios. 25s. net.

THE RYIJY RUGS OF FINLAND

By U. T. SiRELius. A Comprehensive Account of the History
of these famous Finnish Rugs, their Technique, Decorative Devices,
Design, etc. With 93 full-page plates in Colour and 334 illustra-
tions in the Text, mainly from Photographs. Large 4to, cloth,
lettered. £% lOS. net.

F URNITURE OF THE PILGRIM CENTURY,

1620-1720. Including Utensils and Metalwork, By Wallace
Nutting. With 600 Illustrations, showing 1000 pieces
of Furniture, specially photographed. With Descriptive Notes.
Large thick 4to, cloth, gilt. 15s, net.

ENGLISH IRONWORK OF THE XVIIth AND
XVIIIth CENTURIES. By J. Starkie Gardner. Containing
330 pages, with over 250 Illustrations, including 80 Collotype
Plates, and numerous Measured Drawings, Sketches, and Photo-
graphs. Crown 4to, art linen, gilt. £2 10s. net.

ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH WROUGHT IRON-
WORK. By Bailey Scott Murphy, Architect. Containing
80 fine Plates (size 21 -^in. by 14^in.), 68 reproduced from Measured
Drawings, and 12 from Photographs specially taken. With
Descriptive Text. Imperial folio, buckram, gilt. £4 4s. net.

ENGLISH LEADWORK : ITS ART AND HISTORY

A Book for Architects, Antiquaries, Craftsmen, and Owners and
Lovers of Gardens. By Sir Lawrence Weaver, F.S.A. Contain-
ing 280 pages, with 441 Illustrations from Photographs and Draw-
ings. Large 4to, art linen, gilt. 30s. net.

AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF ENGLISH
PLATE, Ecclesiastical and Secular, illustrating the Develop-
ment of Silver and Gold Work of the British Isles from the earliest
known examples to the latest of the Georgian Period. By Sir
Charles James Jackson, F.S.A. With a Coloured Frontispiece,
76 Plates finely executed in Photogravure, and 1500 other Illus-
trations, chiefly from Photographs. Two volumes, small folio,
bound in half-morocco. £10 10s. net.

ART FOR AMATEURS AND STUDENTS

By George J. Cox, A.R.C.A. Containing Chapters on Art and
Life, The Essentials of Art, Art Structure m Minor Arts, In A.rchi-
tecture. In Sculpture, In Painting, etc. With 36 Plates containing
over 250 illustrations reproducing works of Decorative and Fine Art
of every kind in a comparative manner. Large 4to, cloth, paper
sides. 21s.net.

DRAWING, DESIGN AND GRAFTWORK

For Teachers, Students, and Designers. By Fredk. J. Glass.
Cx)ntaining 240 pages, with over 1840 Illustrations on 140 Plates,
from Drawings by the Author. 2nd Edition, revised and enlarged,
with additional illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. 12s.net.

“ Mr. Glass’s book is very comprehensive, embracing practically every kind of art work
that is likely to be attempted m elementary or secondary schools, and ranging feom
simple drawing to various forms of craft work. The book is lavishly illustrated, tud its
general get-up reflects the utmost credit on all concerned .” — The Journal of Education.

SIMPLE STITCH PATTERNS FOR EMBROIDERY

By Anne Brandon Jones. A helpful little treatise on the
embellishment of everyday objects by easy stitch patterns in bright
colours. The variety of combinations in design and colour which
can be worked out from it is almost endless. With Coloured
Frontispiece and 13 Photographic Plates illustrating 44 patterns,
and 4 Plates from the Au-Uior’s pen drawings, showing 31 stitch
diagrams and 11 complete objects. 4to, stiff paper cover, 2s. 6d.
net ; or cloth boards, 3s. 6d. net.

ART IN NEEDLEWORK

A Book about Embroidery. By Lewis F. Day and Mary Buckle.
Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged, with chapters on Modern
Developments by Mary Hogarth, Embroideress. Containing 86
full-page Plates, reproduced from Photographs, and 45 Illustra-
tions in the Text. Crown 8vo, cloth. 6s, net.

FUNDAMENTALS OF DRESS CONSTRUCTION

By S. Mannii?Jg and A. M. Donaldson. A Practical and workable
account of the main basis of all Dress Construction and the Prob-
lems connected therewith. Suitable for use in Schools, etc.
223 pages with about 150 illustrations. Appendix and full Index.
8vo, cloth, lettered. 7s. net.

MILLINERY

By Jane Loewen. A Comprehensive Account of the Practical
and Technical Principles of Millinery for Students, Amateurs, etc.
213 pages with 116 illustrations, including photographs of finished
models, processes of construction, etc. 8vo, cloth, lettered. 7s.
net.

DRAWING FOR ART STUDENTS AND ILLUS-
TRATORS. By Allen W. Seaby. Containing 220 pages,
with over 70 Illustrations printed in Sepia, mostly full-page
Plates, from drawings by Old and Modem Artists. 2nd Edition,
revised and enlarged with further illustrations and a new chapter
on Common Difficulties. Medium 8vo, cloth, paper sides. 12s. net.

THE ART OF PEN DRAWING

For Students, Illustrators and Commercial Artists. By
G. Montague Ellwood, Author of " Studies of the Human Figure,”
etc. A comprehensive illustrated treatise on the whole technique
of drawing in pen and ink as applied to Illustration, Commercial
Work, Architecture, Fashion Drawing, etc. With about 130 illus-
trations of pen work of the finest pen draughtsmen past and
present, including many full-page reproductions. Medium 8vo,
cloth, gilt, paper sides. 12s. net.

COMPOSITION

An Introduction to the Principles of Pictorial Design,for the Use of
Students, Art Schools, etc. By Cyril C. Pearce, R.B.A., Depart-
ment of Fine Arts, University of Reading. A much-needed Trea-
tise demonstrating the system underlying all Graphic Design, with
6 Plates in Colour, 28 Plates in half-tone, and about 130 line illus-
trations in the text, taken from the work of old masters and well-
known artists of the present day, and from the author’s own
drawings, diagrams, analyses, etc. Medium 8vo, cloth, gilt,
paper sides, 12s.net.

THE ART OF DRAWING IN LEAD PENCIL

By Jasper Salwey, A.R.I.B.A. A Practical Manual dealing
with Materials, Technique, Notes and Sketching, Building up.
Form and Style, Process Reproduction, etc. Second Edition, re-
vised and enlarged. Containing 232 pages with 122 finely printed
reproductions of selected Pencil Drawings of Land and Seascapes,
Figure-Studies, Book-Illustrations, etc. Medium 8vo, cloth, gilt,
paper sides. 12s. 6d. net.

SKETCHING IN LEAD PENCIL FOR ARCHI-
TECTS AND OTHERS. By Jasper Salwey, A.R.I.B.A.
An introduction to the same author's " Art of Drawing in Lead
Pencil,” but devoted to sketching as differentiated firom the
making of finished drawings, A practical manual for the Student,
Artist and Architect. Containing 111 pages and 53 illustrations,
by well-known artists in the medium, and by the author. Medium
8vo, half-cloth. 7s.6d.net.

FASHION DRAWING AND DESIGN

By Louie E. Chadwick. Illustrated by numerous examples of
Historic Fashion Plates, Explanatory Sketches by the author,
Figure Studies, and a series of about 80 full-page and double
Plates of Contemporary Fashion Drawings by well-known artists.
Large 8vo, cloth, lettered. 15s. net.

SKETCHING FROM NATURE

A Practical Treatise on the Principles of Pictorial Composition.
By F. J. Glass. Dealing with Choice of Subject and Planning of
Sketch, Tones, Exercises in Composition, Examples from the Old
Masters, etc. With 4 plates in colour, 13 half-tone plates from
drawings by the Author and from Old Masters, and 48 line illustra-
tions from the Author’s drawings. Medium 8vo, cloth, lettered,
10s, 6d.net.

" The book is a most thorough and conscientious piece of work and should go far in
helping the teacher to solve the many problems that arise before satisfactory results can
be obtained in this branch of art .” — The Times Educational Supplement.

PRACTICAL DRAWING

By E. G. Lutz. A manual of practical directions, hints and sug-
gestions on Materials and Instruments, Methods and Processes,
Geometry, Perspective, Composition, Lettering, Figure and Cos-
tume Work, etc. With 170 Illustrations, comprising over 400
examples. Crown 8vo, cloth boards. 6s. 6d. net,

GRAPHIC FIGURES. THE PRACTICAL SIDE OF
DRAWING FOR CARTOONS AND FASHIONS. By
E. G. Lutz. Illustrated by numerous full-page Drawings by
the Author, after famous caricature artists, applying the methods
found remarkably helpful in the Author’s " Practical Drawing."
Large crown 8vo, half-bound. 8s. 6d. net.

PRACTICAL PICTORIAL COMPOSITION

A Guide to the Appreciation of Pictures. By E. G. Lutz, 200
pages calling attention to the Principles of Construction in Pictures,
with special reference to Unity, Repitition, Balance, Symmetry,
etc. With about 300 pen and ink sketches by the Author of
analyses of famous Paintings, etc. 8vo, paper sides. 8s. 6d. net.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF COLOUR

By H, Barrett Carpenter. A Series of 16 brief talks on Natural
Colour Order — ^Harmony — Contrast — Discord — Keynotes — Inter-
mingling — ^Efiect of Lighting — ^Black and White, etc. Illus-
trated by 20 specially prepared Plates, printed in full Colour.
8vo, cloth, gilt. 8s. 6d, net. {Second Impression.)

ON MAKING AND COLLECTING ETCHINGS
By Members of the Print Society, and edited by E. Hesketh
Hubbard. Containing Chapters on Etching Proper, Dry-pomt,
Soft-ground, Mezzotint, and other Processes. Printing, etc. Illus-
trated by 10 whole-page reproductions, and numerous Diagrams.
Second Edition, re-iUustrated. 8vo, hklf-bound, 21s. net.

THE HUMAN FORM (“ Edle Nacktheit *’)

A Series of Artistic Photographic Studies from Life, including
a number of youthful models. Selected and arranged by Lotte
Herrlich. Each volume contains 20 charming full-page Plates
from poses specially arranged for the use of Artists, Sculptors
and Designers. Title in German. 3 Series. Imperial 8vo,
boards. 4s. 6d. net each. Sold only to those interested in Art.

living sculpture : A RECORD OF EXPRES-
SION IN THE HUMAN FIGURE. By Bertram Park and
Yvonne Gregory. With, an historical and descriptive Introduc-
tion by G. Montague Elewood. Comprising a Series of 47 full-
page Studies of Selected Male and Female Figures with Descriptive
Notes. The Introduction is illustrated by 9 plates, giving 16
examples of the Human Form in Prehistoric, Greek, Renaissance
and newest Art. Small 4to, cloth, gilt. 21s. net.

THE HUMAN FORM AND ITS USE IN ART

A Series of 118 Photographic Studies on 73 Plates from specially
selected Female and Child Models, by F. R. Yerbury, including
a Series of Male Studies by F. H. Crossley, F.S.A. With an
Introduction by G. M. Ellwood. Illustrated by 1 7 Photographic
Plates and numerous Text Figures. With Descriptive Notes on
the Poses. Large 8vo, cloth. 18s. net.

STUDIES OF THE HUMAN FIGURE

By G. M. Ellwood and F. R. Yerbury. A series of 80 Photo-
graphic Studies from Male, Female, and Child Models. Introduc-
tion, including Diagrams and Drawings. Large royal 8vo, cloth.
16s. net. \Third Impression.

THE HIEROGLYPHIC OR GREEK METHOD OF
LIFE DRAWING By A. A. Braun. An original method of teach-
ing figure-drawing, with illustrative Diagrams and Sketches in
the text, and 64 full-page Plates from Photographs of a specially
selected female model. 8th Edition. 4to, paper. 15s.net.

THE CHILD IN ART AND NATURE

By A. A. Braun. Containing chapters on Anatomy, Develop-
ment, and Expression, and over 300 Illustrations from Photo-
graphs and Drawings of child poses, expressions, the Child_ Figure
in Art. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. 4to, in stiff
covers. 18s. net ; or cloth, gilt. 21s. net.

THE HUMAN FIGURE

An Analysis of its Construction and Pictorial Representation.
By J. H. Vanderpoel. With 54 full-page Plates and 300 smaller
Illustrations, from the Author’s Drawings. New Edition. Large
8vo, cloth. 16s. net.

FIGURE CONSTRUCTION

A Brief Treatise in Drawing The Human Figure. By Ai.an
Bennet, Director of the Art Centre, New York, with Introduction
By Prof. A. W. Dow. Containing 30 brief Lessons on Parts and
Attitudes, etc. Illustrated by 49 Plates hrom four minute Sketches
by Students, Photographs and Drawings by old Italian Masters.
Large 8vo, cloth, lettered. 12s 6d net.

PRACTICAL ART ANATOMY

By E. G. Lutz. With numerous Anatomical Diagrams by the
Author, aU clearly and fully lettered and explained, 8vo, cloth
back. 8s. 6d. net.

LETTERING AND WRITING

A Series of Alphabets and their Decorative Treatment, with
Examples, and Notes. By Percy J. Smith. Conning 16
Plates in line, to a large scale, printed on boards. Large 4to,
in Cardboard Portfolio. 6s. 6d. net.

LETTERING

By A. E. Payne, A.R.C.A. Containing 20 full-page Plates of
large-size Alphabets and Initials, with Preliminary Text, includ-
ing Diagrams. 8vo, art paper covers. 3s., 6d. net.

THE ROMAN ALPHABET AND ITS DERIVATIVES

A large-sized Reproduction of the Alphabet of the Trajan Column,
By Allen W. Seaby. A Series of large Plates, printed from the
wood blocks, and including tj-pical examples of Renaissance,
Gothic, and Modern Alphabets and Types. With Introduction
and Descriptive Notes. Medium 4to, half-bound, lettered. 6s. 6d.
net.

PENMANSHIP OF THE XVIth, XVIIth, AND
XVIIIth CENTURIES. A Series of Typical Examples from
English and Foreign Writing Books. Selected by Lewis F. Day.
With Notes on Penmanship by Percy J. Smith. Containing
over 100 Examples, chiefly full pages. Crown 4to. 20s. net.

BEGINNER’S COURSE IN SHOW CARD WRIT-
ING. By Ray J. Matasek. Presenting a systematic course in
64 pages and 43 Illustrations of Brush and Pen Strokes ; Arrange-
ment and Composition of Lettering ; Egyptian, Italic, Full and
Poster Block, Roman, Script, French, Tuscan, and Old English
Alphabets ; Numerals ; Illustrated Suggestions for Shs^ng
and High Lighting, Scrolls, etc. Small square 8vo, stiff cardboard
covers. 2s. 6d. net.

LONDON TRADESMEN’S CARDS OF THE XVIIIth
CENTURY. By Ambrose Heal. Illustrated by upwards of
100 full-plate Collotype reproductions of typical specimens,
selected from the Author's and other important collections.
Crown 4to, bound in antique style. £2 2s. net.

DECORATIVE DEVICES IN INDUSTRIAL ART.

A Book of American Trade Marks. Compiled by Joseph
SiNEL. A Series of 58 full-page Plates, illustrating about 250
Designs for Decorative Commercial Devices, by numerous well-
known Artists, in various Styles, some printed in Tints. With
brief Introduction. A novel, interesting, and stimulating collec-
tion. Large 4to, decoratively half -bound. 38s. net.

MODERN DECORATIVE ART IN ENGLAND

A Series of Illustrations of its Development and Characteristics,
with Introductory Text by W. G. Paulson Townsend. Large
4to, cloth, gilt. 25s. net.

TEXTILES, PRINTED FABRICS. WALL PAPERS. LACE
AND EMBROIDERY, TAPESTRY. STENCILLING.
BATIK, ETC. Illustrating on 80 Plates 178 examples,
including 51 subjects beautifully reproduced in full Colour.

FURNITURE FOR SMALL HOUSES

A Series of Designs. By Percy A. Wells. Containing 56 Plates
reproduced from Photographs and Working Drawings by the
Author, together with Illustrations in the Text. Small 4to, cloth.
12s. 6d. net.

“ Mr, Wells’s main concern is with the practical needs of a small house, and from this
point of view his work is quite ^cellent. The photographs maintain the high standard
whic^ we associate with Messrs, Batsford’s publications, and the book should be read and
studied by all who are interested in the long-awaited renascence of English cabinet-mak-
ing .” — Tkfi AiAenaum.

FIRST STEPS IN WATER-COLOUR PAINTING

By Martin F. Gleason, Supervisor of Art and Manual Training,
Elemental Schools, Joliet, lUinois, U.S.A. Treating of Equip-
ment — Mixing Colours — ^Plant-life Painting — Landscape, Illus-
tration — ^Flat Washes, Mottled Colour, etc. With 3 Coloured
Plates, illustrating 9 Sketches and 50 other reproductions of
Water-Colours in Half-tone and Line. Small 4to, cloth, lettered.
9s. net.

INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN

A Textbook of Practical Methods in the Decorative Crafts. By
William H. Varnum. With about 500 Figures and 85 Plates of
Drawings and Photographs of Furniture, Woodcarving, Metal
Objects, Jewellery, Pottery, etc,, and Coloured Keyplates of
Tints. Large 8vo, cloth, lettered. 18s, net.

PRIMARY INDUSTRIAL ARTS

By D. F. Wilson, University of Wisconsin, U.S.A. For the
Use of Teachers in Elementary Stages. The Text deals with
Paper Cutting, Pictorial Composition, Stick-Printing, Clay Model-
ling, Pottery, Weaving, Basketry, etc., etc. With 110 illustrations
in half-tone and line. Large 8vo, cloth, 10s. net.

HANDCRAFT IN WOOD AND METAL

A Handbook for the use of Teachers, Students, Craftsmen, and
others. By John Hooper and Alfred J. Shirley. With over
300 Illustrations from Drawings and Photographs. Second
Edition, revised and enlarged. Large 8 vo, cloth, lettered. 10s. 6d.
net.

METALGRAFT AND JEWELLERY

By E. F. Kronquist. A Complete Manual of Instruction for the
making of Simple Jewellery and Metalwork. With 152 illustra-
tions in half-tone and line of Operations, Processes, Modern Ex-
amples, etc. 8vo, cloth, lettered. 10s. net.

THE ART OF BRASS REPOUSSE

By Gawthorp, Art Metal Workers to His Majesty. Fifth Edition,
revised and enlarged. With 43 Illustrations from Photographs,
etc. 8vo, paper covers. 2s. 6d. net.

THE PROCESS AND PRACTICE OF PHOTO-
ENGRAVING. By Harry A. Groesbeck, Jun. Containing
260 pages, and 280 Diagrams and Illustrations, including Metal
Plates ; Lenses and Light ; Making Line and Half-tone Negatives ;
Printing on Metal; Etching; Colour Work; Electrotyping; Stereo-
types ; Repairs, etc. Demy 4to, doth, gilt, lettered. 38s. net.

FOOT-POWER LOOM WEAVING

A full and Practical Treatise. By Edward F. Worst. Con-
taining 1 1 Chapters, 278 pages, with a full Index, and 555 Figures
of Weaving Pattern Diagrams, etc. Large oblong 4to, cloth,
gilt and lettered. *5s. net.

SAMPLERS AND STITCHES

A Handbook of the Embroiderer's Art. By Mrs. Archibald
Christie. Containing 34 fuU-page Reproductions from Photo-
graphs, a Frontispiece in Colour, and 239 Text Drawings. Crown
4to, boards, canvas back, 25s. net.

“ Many books have been written on this fascinating subject, but we cannot^remember
coming across any more comprehensive and complete work than Mrs. Christie’s. In the
name of all needlewomen there should be accorded to Mrs. Christie a very grateful vote of
thanks.” — Cout^fy lAfa,

ETCHING CRAFT

An Illustrated Guide for Students and Collectors. By W. P,
Robins, R.E., with a Foreword by Martin Hardie, of the Victoria
and Albert Museum. Second Impression, containing 250 pages on
History, Technique, the work of Great Etchers, Drypoint, Aquatint,
etc. Illustrated, by 100 Plates of Etchings by Diirer, Rembrandt,
Hollar, Whistler, Brangwym, John, Meryon, Forain, Zom, and
others. Large 8vo, half-bound, gilt. 15s. net.

THE ART AND PRACTICE OF ETCHING

A Practical Manual, including Mezzotint, Aquatint, and Dry-
point. By Hugh Paton. Treating of Apparatus, the Plate,
the Press, the Studio, Mordants, the Proof, Working Methods,
Paper and Printing, the Painter-Etcher, Colour Etching, etc.
Illustrated by 1 Colour and 3 Monochrome Etchings by the Author,
numerous practical Diagrams, Details of Texture, Work in Stages,
and Reproductions of Etchings by craftsmen of former and modem
times. Medium 8vo, cloth, gilt- 21s. net.

PATTERN DESIGN

For Students, treating in a practical way the Anatomy, Planning,
and Evolution of Repeated Ornament. By Lewis F. Day. Con-
taining about 300 pages, and 300 practical Illustrations from
specially prepared Drawings and Photographs of the Principles
of Repeat Design, the " Drop,” the ” Spot ” Geometrical Ornament,
etc. Third Impression. DemySvo, cloth, gilt. 10s. 6d. net.

“ Every line and every illustration in this book should be studied carefully and con-
tinually by every one having any aspiration toward designing.” — The Decorator.

ENAMELLING

A Comparative Account of the Development and Practice of the
Art. For the Use of Artists. Craftsmen, Students, etc. By Lewis
F. Day. With 115 Illustrations, reproduced from Special Draw-
ings and Photographs. Demy 8vo, cloth, gilt. 8s. 6d. net.

ALPHABETS, OLD AND NEW

With 224 complete Alphabets, 30 Series of Numerals, many
Ancient Dates, etc. Selected and Arranged by Lewis F. Day.
With a short account of the Development of the Alphabet. Crown
8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net.

" A book which has, perh^s, proved more helpful than any ever before issued on the
subject of alphabets.” — The Decorator,

THE ••PRACTICAL CRAFTS” SERIES

MODERN PRACTICAL JOINERY

A Treatise on Joiners’ Work by Hand and Machine. By George
Ellis. Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged, containing 592
pages of Text, and over 1400 Illustrations, including 41 Photo-
graphic Plates and 20 double-page and folding Plates. Complete
in 1 vol., 4to, cloth. £2 5s. net, or separately in 3 vols., half-
bound, Vol. I, 15s. net ; Vol. II., 18s. net ; Vol. HI., 12s. 6d.
net.

“ Mr. Ellis’s great work has now become a classic. It is known to experts everywhere
as the most comprehensive and most reliable work on joinery in the English language.” —
Illustrated Carpenter and Builder.

MODERN PRACTICAL CARPENTRY

By George Ellis. Containing a full description of Methods of
Constructing and Erecting, and various Structural Details. 450
pages, with 1 100 clear and practical Illustrations. Third Edition,
revised and enlarged with new illustrations added. Crown 4to,
cloth. 30s. net; or separately in 2 vols., half-bound, 16s. each
net.

“ ... It excels nearly all in its completeness. There is a large number of clear detailed
drawings. The production of the work is worthy of the excellence of the subject-matter.”
— The Carpenter and Builder.

”... Anyone confronted with an unusual difficulty would almost surely find its solu-
tion somewhere in the volume.” — The Building News.

MODERN CABINET-WORK, FURNITURE AND
FITMENTS. An Account of the Theory and Production of all
kinds of Cabinet-work and Furniture. By Percy A. Wells,
and John Hooper. Containing 400 pages, with over 1000 Prac-
tice Workshop Drawings, Photographs, and Original Designs.
Third Edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 4to, cloth, lettered.
25s. net.

LESSONS IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY

By George Ellis. Presenting a carefully graduated series of
subjects in 39 large Plates, fully lettered and dimensioned, and
comprising about 500 figures and numerous practical details.
With full Descriptive Text. Oblong demy 4to, cloth, lettered.
10s. 6d. net.

BUILDING REPAIRS.

A Practical Guide to their Execution. By Ernest G. Blake,
Containing over 200 pages, with 8 Practical Diagrams, from the
Author’s Drawings. Demy 8vo, cloth. 8s. 6d. net.

Contents; — Bricklayer, Tiler, Slater and Mason, Shoring, Car-
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QUANTITIES

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LIGHT AND AIR.

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MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION

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MODERN THEATRES

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THE COLONIAL HOUSE.

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HOW TO ESTIMATE

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thousands of Prices, and much useful Memoranda. By John
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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING
(ELEMENTARY). By Charles F.. Mitchell, assisted by
George A. Mitchell. Tenth Edition, Revised and greatly
Enlarged. Containing 470 pages of Text, with over 1100 Illus-
trations, fully dimensioned. Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt. 6s. 6d. net.

" f'ook is a model of clearness and compression, well written and admirably illus-
B ought to be in the hands of every student of building construction ," — The

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION (Advanced)

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Containing 900 pages of Text, with over 800 Illustrations, fully
dimensioned. Tenth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged.
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obtain at the present moment. In fact, so far as it is possible for anyone to compile a
satisfactory treatise on building construction, Mr. Mitchell has performed the task as well
as it can be performed .” — The Butlder.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PLATES

By A. Buchanan and W. H. Hudson. With pages for Students’
Notes. Vol. I. Elementary Stage, 40 Plates. Vol. IT. Ad-
vanced Stage, 50 Plates. {New Impression, revised). Oblong
.. n paper covers. Part I, 5s. ; Part II, 5s. 6d.

Buchanan’s extensive teaching experience has enabled him to set down just what
drawings, all prepared by the author, are clear,
definite, and helpful .” — Municipal Engineering.

REGULATIONS OF THE LONDON COUNTY

relating to structural steel

Building Act Amendment, 1909) AND
TO REINFORCED CONCRETE, 1916. As drawn up and
Lucal Government Board. A Reprint of the
Omcial Text, with Notes, Explanations, and Worked Examples,
Illustrations, by Ewart S. Andrew.s, B Sc.,
M.C.I. Second Edition, revised and extended. Crown 8vo,
cloth, lettered. 4s. net.

THE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S POCKET
BOOK. By Ewart S. Andrews, B.Sc. Containing 356 pages,
with numerous Formulae, Tables, Practical Illustrative Diagrams,
etc. Small 8vo (pocket size), cloth. 18s. net.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN IN STEEL FRAME
BUILDINGS. Comprising the detailed design of typical large
Structural Members of Steel Frame Buildings, with calculations
and working drawings.' By Percy J. Waldram. With 8 double-
plate Working Diagrams. 4to, half-bound in cloth, lettered.
12s. 6d. net.

CLARKE’S POCKET-BOOK OF TABLES AND
MEMORANDA FOR PLUMBERS, BUILDERS, SANI-
TARY AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, &c. By
J. Wright Clarke. New and revised Edition. Small pocket
size, leather, 2s. 6d. net. Or in celluloid case, 3s. 6d. net.

" It is obviously one of those things a tradesman should carry in his pocket as religiously

as he does a foot-rule .’’ — The Plumber and Deeoraior.

A MANUAL OF TECHNICAL PLUMBING AND
SANITARY SCIENCE. By S. Barlow Bennett. Fourth
Edition, revised and enlarged, by Walter Scott. Containing
300 pages and 400 clear Illustrations. Royal 8vo., cloth, 9s. 6d.
net.

DRAINAGE AND SANITATION

A Practical Exposition of the Conditions vital to Healthy Build-
ings, their Surroundings and Construction, their "Ventilation,
Heating, Lighting, Water and Waste Services. By E. H. Blake,
F.S.I., M.R.S.I. Second Edition, revised and corrected. Con-
taining 500 pages, with 400 Illustrations. Large 8vo, cloth.
15s. net.

INDEX OF AUTHORS’ NAMES

Adam, Decorative Work, 11
Adams, Office Practice, 27
Allen, Cheap Cottage, 27

Smaller Houses, 27

Anderson, Greece and Rome, 2
Italian, 5

Andrews, Structural Engineer’s
Pocket Book, 31
Andrews, Steelwork Regs., 30
Animal Studies, 22
Artworkers’ Studio, 17
Ashbee, Teaching Art, 15
Great City, 29

Bailey, Spanish Towns, 5
Bates and Charlesworth, Mathe
matics, 30

Batsford, Mural Monuments, 4

Decorative Art, 12

Belcher, Essentials in Arch., 1
Bell, Old Pewter, 14
Benn, Nation’s Treasures, 16
Bennett, Figure Construction, 23

Plumbing, 31

Berk, Proverb Story, 6
Blake, Building Repairs, 27

Sanitation, 31

Blashfleld, Mural Painting, 20
Blum, History of Art, 17
Bode, Italian Furniture, 11
Bonser, Industrial Arts, 8
Brandon- Jones, Stitchery, 20

Braun, Life Drawing, 23

Child in Art and Nature, 23

Briggs, Essentials, 28, 29
Brock, British Sciilpture, 20
Brown, AppEed Drawing, 21
Buchanan, Building Construction
i Plates, 30

Budden, Gothic Churches, 4
Burton, Porcelain, 14
Butterfield, Fences, &c., 6
Floral Design, 18

Caffin, History of Art, 16

Architecture, 1

Picture Study, 20

- Campbell, Arch. Drawing, 28
Candee, Tapestry, 18
Capito,'Caretto, 16
Carpenter, Colour Study, 22
Chadwick, Fashion Drawing, 22
Chamberlain, How we are Fed, 8

How we are Clothed, 8

Chandler, Colonel House, 30
Chancellor, London, 7

Regency in England, 7

Cheney, Modem Art, 19
Christie, Samplers, 26
Qadel, Rodin, 20
Clarke, Pocket Book, 31
Colasanti, Plasterwork, 11
Colour Schemes, 26
Cook, Hobby-horses (Poems), 17

Cox, Church Furniture, 3

County Churches, 4

Cox (K.), Painting. 20
Cram, Church Building, 3
Crane & Day, Moot Points, 14
Crittall, Window Dictionary, 29
Cross, Public Baths, 29

Davie, Kent and Sussex, Cotswold
and Surrey Cottages, 4
Davison, Building Arts, 2
Dawber, Cotswold Cottages, 4
Day, Alphabets, 26

Enamelling, 26

Moot Points, 14

Needlework, 21

Pattern Design, 26

Dav, Penmanship, 24
De’Forest, History of Art, 16
De Mauri, Vmovo, 16
De Palenoia, Costume of Spain, 19
De Toldo, Bookbindings, 15
Doogue, Making a Lawn, 6

Earle, Lampshades, 19
Eberlein, Walls and Ceilings, 6

Rooms and Porches, 6

Inns, 7

Edmondson, English Wallpapers,
13

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